800 CHRISTOPHE-CHROMOSOMES London school. mission; that he exposed himself to all the suffer- | bridge. There are about thirty instructors at the ings of life and death; and that, at his ascension, he resumed the full glory of the attributes which he had laid aside. These conjectures, falling on the congenial soil of Germany, so quick to respond to every germinal suggestion, has produced a rich harvest of varied speculations. The theory of Thomasius has not been generally accepted, but neither has it been generally rejected, and an increasing number of theologians are finding themselves in sympathy with it. F. JOHNSON. CHRISTOPHE, HENRI, KING OF HAITI; born a slave in the West India island of Grenada, Oct. 6, 1767; had purchased his freedom and was employed as an overseer in the island of St. Domingo at the time of the outbreak of the blacks against the French in 1793. He was a man of gigantic stature and great courage, and placing himself | at the head of a band of the insurgents, he signalized himself from the commencement of the troubles by his energy, boldness and activity in many bloody engagements. Toussaint L'Ouverture gave him a commission as brigadier-general, and he was largely instrumental in driving the French from the island, which was accomplished in about two years. During the administration of Dessalines, Christophe was general-in-chief, and after Dessalines's death he became President for life, and was master of the northern part of the island. Meanwhile Pétion had organized another republic in Haiti, and a civil war of many years' duration ensued, in which Christophe headed the negroes against the rule of the mulattoes, led by Pétion. In 1811 Christophe had himself proclaimed king of Haiti by the name of Henri I, and also sought to perpetuate his name by the compilation of the Code Henri, a digest founded upon the Code Napoléon. His cruelty finally provoked a revolt which he was unable to quell, and finding himself deserted by his body-guard and all his nobles, he shot himself, Oct. 8, 1820. CHRIST'S HOSPITAL, popularly known as the Blue-Coat School, from the picturesque dress of the boys educated there, which consists of a blue tunic and yellow breeches and stockings, is situated in Newgate Street, London (occupying the site of the old Greyfriars monastery), and accommodates 700 boys. It was founded by King Edward VI, in 1553, as a hospital for poor orphans and foundlings, but it has gradually become a public boarding-school for the sons of London freemen and Anglican clergymen. It has also a girls' and boys' preparatory school at Hertford, founded in 1683, where there are 120 boys and 350 girls, the boys only coming up to the London school when old enough. In 1890 two day schools, for 600 boys and 400 girls, were opened. The original endowment has been largely increased, notably by King Charles II, and the income amounts to some three hundred thousand dollars per year. The education is essentially classical, but modern languages and literature are also taught. Boys leave the school at 15, except the mathematical scholars and the "Grecians," who are sent on scholarships, either to Oxford or Cam CHROMATIN, the name of one of the constituents of the cell-nucleus. The nucleus in its resting stage is composed of a semi-fluid hyaline substance, and a more solid fibrillar network in which are distributed a number of granules of a substance readily stained, and hence called "chromatin.” For illustration, see KARYOKINESIS, in these Supplements. CHROMATE OF LEAD. See LEAD, Vol. CHROMATIC PRINTING-PRESS. CHROMATOPHORES. See MOLLUSCA, Vol. CHROMATYPE, a photographic picture in which the paper employed has been sensitized by some of the salts of chromium. CHROME STEEL. these Supplements. p. 705. See IRON AND STEEL, in See CHROMIUM, Vol. V, CHROMITE OR CHROMIC IRON. See CHROMO- LITHOGRAPHY. CHROMOMETER. In the petroleum industry, chromometers are used to determine the colors of oil, and separate it into the commercial grades known as water white, superfine white, prime white, standard white and good merchantable. The Wilson chromometer is much used, but the Stammer chromometer is much more accurate. The latter has a cylindrical case within which is a cylinder with a glass bottom, so arranged that the oil is looked at lengthwise of the cylinder. By turning a screw, the length of this cylinder is altered, and the inspector is able to bring it to a tint matching a sample, and then by noting the length. of the column of oil on a scale he finds its color-value in terms of the standard. This chromometer has also been used to test lubricating oils. It has been somewhat improved in detail by Robert Redwood. A form of chromometer is also used by metallurgists, in assaying, to compare the intensity of the color of the bead, when an ore is fused with borax, with the color given by a known quantity of the metal. CHROMOSOMES. In nuclear division the fibrillar network (see CHROMATIN) breaks up into a definite number of segments, to which the name chromosomes has been given. The movements of these chromosomes during nuclear division are an essential feature of the process. Much interest is attached to chromosomes, as they are claimed by many biologists to be the CHROMOSOMES-CHU HI For material carriers of hereditary tendencies. illustration, see KARYOKINESIS, in these Supplements, and also see the article on REPRODUCTION in the same. 801 An inferior quality occurs in granite at Haddam, Connecticut, and elsewhere in New England and New York. Cat's-eye is a popular name for one variety. See also MINERALOGY, Vol. XVI, p. CHRYSOCOLLA, copper ore. See COPPER, Vol. VI, p. 347. CHROMOSOMES. See EMBRYOLOGY AND HE- 386. See ASTRONOMY, Vol. CHRONOGRAM OR CHRONOGRAPH, a whimsical device of the later Romans, by which a date is given by selecting certain letters from among those which form an inscription, and printing them larger than the others. The principle will be understood from the following example, made from the name of George Villiers, first Duke of Buckingham: GEORGIVS DVX BVCKINGAMIÆ. The date MDCXVVVIII (1628) is that of the year in which the Duke was murdered by Felton at Portsmouth. Another well-known example conveys the date in the inscription upon a medal struck by Gustavus Adolphus in 1632: CHRISTVS DVX; ERGO TRIVMPHVS. CHRONOGRAPH See GUNNERY (Vol. XI, pp. 297-301) AND BALLISTICS, in these Supplements. CHRONOSCOPE, an instrument contrived by Sir Charles Wheatstone to measure the duration of certain short-lived luminous phenomena, such as the velocity of light, the electric spark, or the velocity of projectiles, of which the eye itself can be no judge, owing to the persistence of impressions on the eye after the cause of sensation has ceased. The phenomenon is observed by reflection in a mirror in such rapid motion that the image of the luminous object would appear to describe a circular arc, the length of which must be a measure of the duration of the light. CHRYSALIS. See BUTTERFLIES, Vol. IV, p. CHRYSELEPHANTINE, sculpture in gold and ivory; a fashion which prevailed in Greece and Asia at an early day. Two celebrated works in these costly materials were the statue of Athene in the Parthenon and that of the Olympian Zeus in his temple at Elis-masterpieces of Phidias. The exposed portions were done in ivory, the drapery and accessorial enrichments in gold. Upon the statue of Athene, 26 feet high, the enormous amount of fifty talents of gold was used. 66 CHRYSIS, a genus of hymenopterous insects. They are popularly known as cuckoo-flies" in England, and as "golden-wasps" in Germany. They are remarkable for their brilliant metallic colors. CHRYSOBALANUS, a genus of trees and shrubs of the family Rosacea, natives of tropical and subtropical America and Africa. The cocoaplum (C. Icaco) of tropical America produces an edible fruit. CHRYSOBERYL, sometimes called CYMOPHANE, a valuable gem, very hard, occurring as round pebbles in Brazil and Ceylon, and as fine crystals called alexandrite in the Ural Mountains. CHRYSOLITE. See PERIDOTE, Vol. XVIII, P. 534; MINERALOGY, Vol. XVI, p. 410. CHRYSOPRASE, a kind of quartz which constitutes a costly variety of chalcedony. It is generally apple-green in color, often extremely beautiful, and highly prized in jewelry, being sometimes set with diamonds and pearls. It is nearly as hard as flint, translucent, and sometimes semitransparent, and occurs in Oregon, California and elsewhere. See MINERALOGY, Vol. XVI, p. 389. CHRYSOTYPE, a photographic process invented by Sir John Herschel as an embellishment of his well-known "cyanotype," or "blue-print" process. It consists in treating the sensitized paper with a neutral solution of chlorid of gold after the image has appeared, but before washing. This gives a purple tint to the image, which, after being freely washed in water, is then "fixed" with a weak solution of iodid of potassium, which converts any unaltered chlorid of gold into a soluble salt easy to remove by a final washing. CHUB (Leuciscus cephalus). See ANGLING, Vol. II, p. 42; ROACH, Vol. XX, p. 582. CHUBB, CHARLES, English inventor, who died May 16, 1845. See SAFES, Vol. XXI, p. 144; also Lock, Vol. XIV, pp. 746, 747. CHUBUT OR CHUPAT. See PATAGONIA, Vol. XVIII, p. 353CHUCK-WILL'S-WIDOW. See GOATSUCKER, Vol. X, p. 711. CHUDLEIGH, CAPE, on the north coast of Labrador, at the entrance of Hudson Strait, lat. 60° 12' N., long. 65° 25′ W. CHUFFUCK, SAMUEL W., inventor; born in Vermont in 1800; died in Utica, New York, June 28, 1875. In 1845 he engaged in the manufacture of telegraph instruments in Utica, and is said to have made the first one. The "pony" sounder and circuit-closer attachment to the key were his inventions. He was also a collector of rare coins. CHU HI OR CHU HE, a Chinese philosopher and statesman who flourished during the Sung dynasty in the twelfth century. Born A. D. 1130, at Hihchau, in the province of Nganwui, he early became a studious and precocious child, and was an ardent reader of Confucius. When about 24 years old he became a submagistrate, and from that time exhibited such qualities of forethought, careful observation, diligence, and integrity that his suggestions as to the needs of the empire and the welfare of the people were not only received with favor by the emperor, but, on important occasions of famine or pestilence, were asked, and he became a confidential adviser of the government. His public life was marked by industry, force of character and moderation. His name signifies 'brilliant vermilion," and was bestowed in child 66 802 CHU KIANG-CHURCH CHUQUISACA. See SUCRE, Vol. XXII, p. 618. CHURCH, ALBERT E., an American mathematician; born at Salisbury, Connecticut, Dec. 16, 1807; died at West Point, New York, March 30, 1878. The son of Chief Justice Church of Connecticut, he received an appointment to the Military Academy at West Point from John C. Cal hood as being characteristic of great talents; but upon his marriage he adopted the name YUEN HwUI, "original obscurity." His writings were very numerous, and some of them remain in use to this day. He was the best interpreter of the Chinese classics, and a constant inculcator of moral philosophic teachings. Outlines of General History; Memoirs of Illustrious Ministers; Domestic Ritual, or Rules for the Use of Families; Commen-houn, and was a classmate there with Jefferson taries on the Dialogues of Confucius; Treatise on the Duties of Children; Commentary on the Diagrams of the Great Extreme; and Youth's Guide for Studying the Book of Changes, are the titles of some of his works. He died A. D. 1200. CHU KIANG OR PEARL RIVER, a river of Kwangtung province; rises in the central part of the province, flows southward, past Canton, into the Li Kiang. Its length is about fifty miles. At Canton it is a broad, tidal river; lower down it becomes separated into numerous delta-like outlets. CHULALONGKORN I, KING OF SIAM, born Sept. 21, 1853; succeeded to the throne of his father, Oct. 1, 1868; died Aug. 16, 1894; was a just and high-minded ruler, a Buddhist, and a scholar. Among the important reforms which he inaugurated were the partial abolition of slavery and the reform of the calendar, by which he established a new astronomical year, to commence April 1st. CHULPAS, ancient burial towers of the South American Incas. See illustration of ruins, under ARCHITECTURE, Vol. II, p. 451. Davis, graduating first in his class, July 1, 1828. After eight years' service in the Third Artillery, he resigned from the army and was appointed to succeed Professor Davies at the head of the mathematical department of the Military Academy, in which position he served nearly forty years, being pre-eminently distinguished for his personal and scholarly qualities. He received the degree of LL.D. from Yale in 1852 and that of A. M. from Washington, now Trinity, College, Connecticut, and from the University of Pennsylvania, in 1837; was a member of several scientific societies, and the author of Elements of the Differential and Integral Calculus, and numerous other well-known mathematical text-books. CHURCH, ALFRED JOHN, an English clergyman and author; born in London, Jan. 29, 1827; educated at King's College, London, and at Lincoln College, Oxford; graduated 1851; ordained priest, 1853; assistant master at the Royal Institution School, Liverpool, and at the Merchant Taylors' School, London, 1857-70; head master at Henley Grammar School, 1870-72; and Retford Grammar School, 1873-80; Professor of CHUMBUL, a river of central India, rising in Latin in University College, London, 1880-89; the Vindhyan Mountains at a height of 1,800 rector of Ashley, Tetbury, Wilts, 1892; published feet above the sea, and entering the Jumna after a number of translations from and editions of a generally northeast course of 514 miles. It is the Greek and Latin classics, but is best known subject to sudden floods, and is not navigable. by a series of volumes in which he sought to CHUMASHAN INDIANS, a nearly extinct make the classics popular with the young, among linguistic stock of North American Indians origi- which were Stories from Homer; Stories from nating in the Santa Barbara Islands of the Pacific Virgil; The Story of the Persian War; Stories coast of North America, and at one time congre- from Livy. He also wrote The Chantry Priest of gating around the California missions of Santa Barnet; With the King at Oxford; Stories of the Barbara, San Luis Obispo, San Buenaventura and Magicians; and To the Lions, a tale of the early their vicinity. church; and translated a number of Tennyson's poems into Latin verse, published under the title Hora Tennysoniana. CHUNAM, the Indian name for a very fine kind of quicklime made from calcined shells or from very pure limestone, and used for chewing with betel and for plaster. When chunam is to be used for plaster, it is mixed with fine river sand and thoroughly beaten up with water. A little jaggery (coarse sugar) is also added. CHURCH, ARTHUR HERBERT, an English chemist; born June 2, 1834; educated at London and Oxford; professor of chemistry in the Royal Academy of Arts and Sciences since 1879; well known as the discoverer of turacin, an animal pigment containing copper, and of several new mineral species, including the only British cerium mineral. Among his writings are Precious Stones (1883); English Earthenware (1884); English Por celain (1886); and of the Laboratory Guide for Agricultural Students, which reached its sixth edition in 1888. He was elected fellow of the Chem CH'UNG-K'ING, a city of the province of Sz Chuen, western China, on the west bank of the Yang-Tsz, immediately below the point where the Kialing joins it, about seventeen hundred miles from the sea. It is walled, and was built in its present form between 1368 and 1398. It is six hundred miles above the head of navigation, and the intervening part of the river is a series of dan-ical Society in 1856 and of the Royal Society in gerous rapids, which is only available for transportation when great skill and boats built especially for the purpose are used. The chief exports of the city are silk, salt, wax and tobacco. Population, 250,000. 1888. CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN, an American artist; born at Hartford, Connecticut, May 14, 1826; began to paint when quite young, and first studied under Thomas Cole at Catskill, New CHURCH-CHURCHILL 803 York. He next made his home in New York, | had practically no existence, being merely a showand in 1849 was elected a member of the National | place-an architectural monument. Dean Church Academy. In 1853 and again in 1857 he traveled in South America. His great picture of Icebergs was painted after a visit to Labrador, and attracted much attention when exhibited in London in 1863. A journey through the West Indies, Europe and Palestine, made in 1866, furnished the suggestions of some of his greatest works. His best-known piece is The Great Fall at Niagara (seen from the Canadian side), which he painted in 1857, and which is now in the Corcoran Art Gallery at Washington, District of Columbia. In 1867 it received a medal of the second class at the Paris Exposition, and it was exhibited elsewhere in Europe. His works include The Andes of Ecuador (1855); Niagara (1857); Heart of the Andes (1859); Icebergs (1861); St. Thomas in the Vale, Jamaica; Niagara from the American Side (1866); Damascus (1869); Rainy Season in the Tropics, Jerusalem (1870); The Parthenon (1871); El Kasna Petra (1872); Tropical Moonlight (1874); Egean Sea; Valley of Santa Isabel (1875); El Ayn (1876); Morning in the Tropics (1877); and many since. He was well represented at the Chicago World's Fair, 1893. aroused popular enthusiasm, and before his death he had made St. Paul's the very heart of the religious life of the city of London. He combined two singular elements of attractiveness: he was at once a link with the past and the most widely reverenced ecclesiastical authority of his day. Among his works are university sermons, in a volume entitled Human Life and its Conditions (1878); the series of St. Paul's and Oxford sermons, in The Gifts of Civilization (1880), and the five St. Paul's sermons forming The Discipline of the Christian Character (1885); all profound contributions to religious thought. Other works are his Life of St. Anselm (1871), an amplification of two essays in his first volume; The Beginning of the Middle Ages (1877); an introduction to the series of Epochs of Modern History; Dante: An Essay; Spenser (1879) and Bacon (1879), two of the best books in the series of "English Men of Letters"; and a monograph, published after his death, upon The Oxford Movement. CHURCH, FREDERICK STUART, an American painter; born at Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1841; member of the National Academy and of the American Water-Color Society; resides in New York; affected fantastic effects in color; animals and allegories were among his favorite subjects. Mad as March Hares and The Sea Princess are two of his best-known pictures. CHURCH, IRVING PORTER, an American educator; born at Ansonia, Connecticut, July 22, 1851; graduated as civil engineer at Cornell in 1873; continued there as instructor and assistant professor until 1892, when he was appointed professor of applied mechanics. He was the author of several text-books upon engineering, hydraulics and mechanics, among them Mechanics of Engineering and Notes and Examples in Mechanics. CHURCH, JOHN ADAMS, an American mining engineer; born at Rochester, New York, April 5, 1843; a graduate of the School of Mines in New York City; was several years professor in the same institution, and has participated in government surveys of mines in Nevada and elsewhere, and was the author of several practical works on metallurgy, and of a treatise on The Comstock Lode (1880). CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM, dean of St. Paul's London; born in Lisbon, April 25, 1815; died in Dover, Dec. 9, 1890; passed his early life in Italy; was educated at Oxford, and in 1838 became fellow of Oriel College and an intimate friend of John Henry Newman. He married in 1853, and became rector of Whateley, in Somerset. In 1854 he published Essays and Reviews, and took rank as one of the most graceful and scholarly writers of the day. In 1871 he was elected dean of St. Paul's. Before his deanship, as a center of religious life, St. Paul's CHURCH, SANFORD ELIAS, jurist; born in Milford, Otsego County, New York, April 18, 1815; died in Albion, New York, May 14, 1880. He became a lawyer and settled in Albion, whence he was called to the assembly in 1842. He was district attorney (1846-47); lieutenant-governor from 1851 to 1855; comptroller of the state (1868-69); and member of the state constitutional convention in 1867. In 1870 he was elected chief justice of the court of appeals of the state of New York, and held the office until his death. He was an influential politician of the Democratic party, and was respected for his uprightness and conservatism. CHURCH-ALE, an obsolete English merrymaking church festival, usually held at Easter or at Whitsuntide, with a view to making money for church purposes. Ale and other refreshments, contributed by the parishioners, were on sale in the vicinity of the church, and the festivals, being largely attended, attracted peddlers, jugglers, morris-dancers and other strollers, until the church-ales became very like the modern fairs. CHURCH CONGRESS, a popular and sucessful organization within the Church of England, which has held annual gatherings since 1861, designed to promote among the clergy and laity a free interchange of views upon practical religious questions of the day. A somewhat similar institution within the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States was established in 1875, and holds its sessions in the years when the general convention does not meet. It has also met with great favor and accomplished gratifying results. CHURCH GOVERNMENT. See ERASTUS, Vol. XIII, p. 518. CHURCHILL, JOHN WESLEY, an American educator; born May 26, 1839; was graduated at Harvard College, 1865, and at Andover Theological Seminary, 1868, where, after being ordained to the ministry, he became professor of elocution, in which capacity he also served Wellesley and 804 CHURCHILL-CHURUBUSCO Smith colleges and the Harvard Divinity School. He contributed to the magazines and was associate editor of the Andover Review. CHURCHILL FAMILY. See MARLBOROUGH, Vol. XV, p. 553, and in these Supplements. CHURCHILL RIVER, of Canada, rises between the north branch of the Saskatchewan and the Athabasca, under lat. 55° N., and flows generally northeast through a series of lakes, first as the Beaver, then as the Missinnippi, and finally as the Churchill or English River, to Hudson Bay, which it enters near Fort Churchill, after a course of nearly one thousand miles. It is extensively navigated by canoes, which are conveyed by portage past the largest of the many rapids. CHURCHING OF WOMEN, a religious usage, prevailing in the Christian Church from an early period, of women, on their recovery after childbearing, going to church to give thanks. It appears to have been borrowed from the Jewish law (Lev. xii, 6), and the earliest express mention of it is in the pseudo Nicene-Arabic canons. CHURCH JURISDICTION. See ECCLESIASTICAL LAW, Vol. VII, p. 627. CHURCH OF GOD OR WINEBRENNERIANS, a religious society in the United States, composed largely of Germans, which was formed in the year 1825, by separation from the German Reformed churches at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, under the leadership of Pastor John Winebrenner. The first congregation was organized in 1829, with no creed or discipline but the Bible, and with the practice of baptism (adults only) by immersion. They practice, as a church ordinance, the washing of one another's feet, in imitation of Christ's washing the feet of his disciples. They are spread over the Western states, but are principally in the Ohio valley. They have a college at Findlay, Ohio. In 1894 they had 450 ministers, 560 churches and 36,000 communicants. CHURCHILL, RANDOLPH HENRY SPENCER, LORD, an English statesman; second son of the sixth Duke of Marlborough, and brother of the seventh duke; born at Blenheim, Feb. 13, 1849; educated at Oxford; entered Parliament in 1874; made his maiden speech in opposition to making Oxford a garrison town, and by his argumentative strength and reckless utterances in debate soon made himLORD RANDOLPH CHURCHILL. self conspicuous in that assembly. In 1880 he became a Tory leader, chief of a political group, small in numbers, but composed of men of mark, known as "the Fourth Party," who were extremely conservative as to religion and statecraft, and caused the Liberals much trouble by their daring and persistent assaults. Churchill likewise assailed the "old" Tory party, and sought to make his clique of "Conservatives" popular by declaring in favor of universal suffrage and other advanced ideas, after the manner of Bismarck. With this design he founded the Primrose League, of which he became president, and which had a large membership throughout England. In 1885 Churchill became Secretary of State for India in the Marquis of Salisbury's first ministry, but the speedy downfall of that administration gave him little time to adjust the Afghan boundary question. In July, 1886, with Salisbury again in power, he became Chancellor of the Exchequer and leader of the House of Commons. He found the finances in great disorder, and sought to put an end to certain administrative abuses, but only succeeded in drawing upon himself the anger of his fellow-ity vote of the parishioners. In 1868 an act was workers, especially of Lord Wolseley. He resigned Dec. 23, 1886. He afterward made several trips to the Continent, which excited the curiosity of every government in Europe, notably one to Russia in December, 1887. He sought to bring England into an alliance with the anti-German party in Russia, and he made significant advances to General Boulanger. He figured conspicuously as the promoter of "Democratic Toryism," and sought to create a conservative democracy by enabling farmers to acquire land and workmen to acquire homes. To this end he proposed to make land transfers less costly and less complicated, to suppress entail, and to lessen taxes by diminishing public expenditures. In 1891 he made a journey to South Africa, where he had financial interests, and in the following year published Men, Mines and Animals in South Africa. In 1874 he married a daughter of Lawrence Jerome of New York. He died Jan. 24, 1895. His Speeches from 1880 to 1888 have been published in two volumes (1889). CHURCH RATES, a tax levied in England upon the occupants of parochial lands and houses for the purpose of maintaining the church and its services. The tax is voted in the first instance by the vestry, and must be affirmed by a major passed abolishing compulsory church rates, except such as under that name were applicable to secular purposes. CHURCHWARDENS, in England, two officers annually elected by the parish to superintend the church, its property and its affairs. In the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States two churchwardens are annually chosen in each parish, who, with the vestrymen, constitute what is called the vestry of the parish, and have charge of its property and material affairs. CHURCHYARD BEETLE (Blaps mortisaga). See COLEOPTERA, Vol. VI, p. 133. CHURN. See DAIRY, Vol. VI, p. 770. CHURUBUSCO, a village of Mexico, six miles S. of the capital. Here, on the 20th of August, 1847, General Winfield Scott, with the United States forces, on his way to the City of Mexico, met the Mexicans under Santa Anna, who were guarding this approach to the city, and completely defeated them. In this battle, and in that of Contreras on the same day, General Scott |