840 CLUNES-CLYMER CLUNES, a borough of Victoria, Australia, 119 miles N. W. of Melbourne. Gold-mining and grazing are the chief industries. Population, 3,574. CLUNIACS OR THE CONGREGATION OF CLUGNY, one of the most important of the many religious orders into which the widespread order of St. Benedict was divided ultimately. It was founded early in the tenth century, and took its name from the town in France in which its abbey was located. The monastic rule of St. Benedict, based on the cardinal principles of labor and obedience, had fallen into scandalous neglect, although that order had increased in power and numbers so as to overspread the whole of Europe, when, in A. D. 910, William of Aquitaine founded. and endowed the monastery of Clugny, which he designed should present an example of strict and conscientious religious observance. The times were so ripe for reform, and the benefit of rigorous discipline so apparent, that numerous other monasteries, drawn to imitate the virtue of Clugny, affiliated themselves therewith, until its jurisdiction penetrated Britain, France, Germany, Spain, Italy, and even the East. In A. D. 946 the pope exempted Clugny from diocesan jurisdiction, and subjected it to the immediate supervision of the Holy See. But lapse of time and change of leaders again and again brought relaxation of discipline, which in turn gave way before a renewed spirit of reform. Such a movement in the seventeenth century, instigated by Cardinal | Richelieu, resulted in rules, known as the "Strict Observance of Clugny," which impressed their beneficial influence upon monastic life even outside the order. For over eight hundred years did this religious body receive favor and emoluments from princes and popes, and intermittently cast the light of its example upon the religious world, and dispensed its benefits to the poor and suffering, down to the outbreak of the French Revolution, when its doors were closed, its property confiscated, and its life destroyed by "the people of France." The Cluniacs afford the first instance of an order which was founded within the limits of one already existing, and of which it continued to form a part. Their palmiest days were in the twelfth century, when the order was very brilliant and powerful. Among their great men were the popes Gregory VII, Urban II and Paschal II. See ABBEY, Vol. I, pp. 14, 15; and CLUNY, Vol. VI, p. 43. CLUPEIDÆ, a formerly recognized family of fishes, nearly allied to the Salmonida. In this family the herring, pilchard, anchovy, sardine, etc., were included, but it is now subdivided into several families. CLUSERET, GUSTAVE PAUL, a French soldier of fortune; born in Paris, June 13, 1823; was ed ucated at the military school of St. Cyr, and soon after entering the army, received the cross of the Legion of Honor for valor during the revolution of February, 1848; he afterward served in the Crimean War, followed Garibaldi, and rose to the rank of lieutenant-colonel on the general staff of the army of Italy. In 1861 he came to America and served in the Union army under Frémont and McClellan, and was successively promoted to be colonel and general. After the war he established a newspaper in New York to advocate the candidacy of General Frémont for the Presidency; and after the election of General Grant he returned to Europe to take part in the Fenian insurrection. He next appeared in France, where his violent articles against the government caused his arrest, but he escaped punishment on the plea of being a naturalized American citizen. In 1872 he settled in Switzerland, and in 1881 returned to France. As editor of La Commune and of La Marseillaise, he again incurred the hostility of the French government and was obliged to leave the country. In 1884 he once more returned, and, while devoting himself to painting, wrote and published Memoirs of the Second Siege of Paris (1887), in which he sought to justify the Commune. He subsequently was elected a member of the National Assembly by the Radical party. Among his paintings exhibited in the Salon are Sunrise (1888) and Yldiz, Palace of the Sultan (1890). CLUSIA, a tropical American genus of shrubs and trees of the family Guttifera. C. rosea yields an abundant resin, which is used as an external application in veterinary medicine, and for covering boats, instead of pitch. C. insignis, the waxflower of Demerara, is used to make a stimulating and soothing plaster. Several of the species are epiphytes, growing upon the larger trees. CLUSONÉ, a town of Lombardy, northern Italy, situated near the left bank of the Serio. It has manufactories of linen, a trade in corn and iron, and in the vicinity are copper foundries and vitriol-works. Population, 3,878. CLYDE, a village, capital of Bryan County, southeastern Georgia, about 18 miles W. from Savannah. CLYDE, a village of Wayne County, north-central New York, is situated on the Clyde River, 38 miles W. of Syracuse, and has manufactures of glass, steam-engines and farming implements. Two railway lines and the Erie canal give ready access to markets for its products. Population 1890, 2,638. CLYDE, a town of Sandusky County, northern Ohio, is situated on the Erie and Lake Shore railways, 17 miles S. W. from Sandusky. Its manufactures include flour, edge-tools and pianos. It is in the center of a rich agricultural region, and has water-works supplied by an artesian well. CLYMER, GEORGE, an American statesman, signer of the Declaration of Independence, was born at Philadelphia in 1739; inherited from an uncle a comfortable fortune; in 1773 became a bold advocate for American rights, and was a member of the Council of Safety. He was also CLYMER-COAL-MINING one of the first Continental treasurers; a member of Congress in 1776 and 1780; of the Pennsylvania legislature in 1784, of the constitutional convention in 1787, and of the first United States Congress in 1788. In 1796 he withdrew from public life. He died at Morrisville, Pennsylvania, Jan. 23, 1813. CLYMER, MEREDITH, an American physician, born in 1817. He graduated in medicine in 1837, and subsequently studied in London, Paris, and Dublin. He began practice in Philadelphia, but shortly afterward removed to New York. He accepted the position of professor in several colleges, among them being the University of the City of New York and the Albany Medical College. During the Civil War he was surgeon of United States volunteers. He has written numerous works on medical subjects, among which may be named Ecstasy and other Disorders of the Nervous System; Hereditary Genius; Cerebro-Spinal Meningitis; and The Legitimate Influence of Epilepsy on Criminal Responsibility. 841 the office with Lord North, the leader of the opposite party. The term is also used of alliances between separate states. Of these, the coalitions formed at different times by other European nations against France are among the most famous in history. *COAL-MINING IN THE UNITED STATES. For the general subject, see COAL, Vol. VI, pp. 45-81. Of the 50 states and territories, including Alaska, of the American Union, 35 are underlaid, in part, by coal-measures. Of this number, 29 are producing coal in commercial quantities. Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Nebraska, South Dakota, Arizona and Nevada have coal-beds, though, either from their poor quality or remoteness from lines of transportation, little or no coal is mined therefrom. The area of the coal-fields has not been determined positively, and in many individual cases no approximations as to these areas have been attempted. In the older states, however, where geological surveys have been made and are in progress, these areas have been determined. For convenience of reference, the coal-fields have been classified. This classification, together with the determined areas, the annual production and number of employees in 1894, is given in the following table, compiled from the reports of the United States Geological Survey. CLASSIFICATION OF THE COAL-FIELDS OF THE UNITED STATES. COAHUILA, one of the most northerly of the 27 states which are included in the Mexican Republic. On the north it is separated from Texas by the Rio Grande; Nueva Leon and a few miles of Tamaulipas bound it on the east; San Luis Potosi and Zacatecas on the south; Durango and Chihuahua on the west. The state has an area of 63,569 square miles, is generally mountainous, is rich in minerals and pasturage, and has several cotton factories and a large number of flour-mills in operation within its borders. A branch of the Mexican Central railway extends from Torrejon, on the borders of Durango, in the southwest, to Ciudad Porfirio Diaz, on the Rio Grande, opposite New England (Rhode IsEagle Pass, Texas, on the north, making connections at Spofford and at San Antonio, Texas, for Saltillo is the all portions of the United States. capital, with a population of 26,000. Estimated population of the state in 1891, 177,800. COAHUILTECAN INDIANS, a nearly extinct tribe of North American Indians who formerly inhabited the lower part of the Rio Grande valley, in Mexico, the province of Coahuila and some adjoining territory. They form a distinct linguistic stock, and when first known embraced 25 tribes. In 1886 only three of the tribes were extant, numbering less than a score of individuals, none of whom then lived within the borders of the state of Coahuila, and most of whom had forgotten their language and traditions. COALFISH (Mertangus carbonarius), a fish allied to the cod, found in arctic waters. The skin contains a black pigment which is easily rubbed off when the fish is handled. The liver of the fish furnishes an oil which is used for many purposes. The pollock belongs to the same genus. COALITION, in politics, a term applied to the union of two parties, or, as usually happens, portions of parties, who agree to sink their differences and act in common. The English ministry known as the Great Coalition was formed in 1782, when Fox, the leader of the reformers, took Anthracite. land and Massachu- Pennsylvania Colorado and New Mex- Bituminous (a). Triassic: Appalachian: Pennsylvania - Maryland. *Virginia... West Virginia- 16,000 11,627,757 17,824 Northern Michigan- Tennessee Georgia. Central: Indiana.. 1,218 072 CLASSIFICATION OF THE COAL-FIELDS OF THE UNITED STATES.-Continued. No. EMPLOYEES. 77 1,782 9,995 2,245,039 7,523 Nebraska 3,200 7,339 I,493 Indian Territory- 20,000 969,606 420,848 3, 101 1,062 3,032 671 *Colorado- *New Mexico-- Nevada.. Idaho.. strike of the measures to cut the coal-beds. These methods are, of course, cheaper than slopes and shafts, since they drain themselves, and no pump. ing or hoisting engines are required. A slope is an opening upon a bed at right angles to its strike, and in the direction of the dip, or inclination. A shaft is an opening sunk vertically through the measures to the desired bed or beds. A stripping is, as its name implies, an area of a coal-bed from which the soil and loose rock have been stripped and the coal-bed laid bare. The slopes now being sunk are divided into three compartments. Two of these are used for 27 hoisting-ways, while in the third are laid the water-column pipe and pipes conveying steam or compressed air to the pumps below. The shafts are rectangular in form and have from two to six compartments. 2 376,206 (a) Including lignite, brown coal and scattering lots of anthracite. * Total employed. The coal produced in the country in 1894 exceeded in value the combined values of the following metallic products for the same period: Pig-iron, gold, silver, lead, zinc, quicksilver, aluminium, antimony, nickel and platinum by over $1,000,000, or in other words, the spot value of the coal product, both anthracite and bituminous, was $186,141,564, while the spot value of the combined products, enumerated above, was $185,027,646, or $1,113,918 less than the coal product. The number of persons employed in and about the coal-mines of the United States in 1894 was 376,206. ANTHRACITE MINING METHODS. As might be expected from their dissimilarity in physical character and structural conditions, mining methods in the anthracite and bituminous coal-fields differ widely. In the anthracite region, coal is mined from beds whose angles of inclination vary from o° to 90°, hence the methods of opening and subsequent mining vary materially. The method of developing a colliery is dependent upon certain conditions, and these may be topographical or geological, or both. The several methods are: 1. Drift or adit; 2. Tunnel; 3. Slope; 4. Shaft; 5. Stripping. A drift is an opening in the coal-bed, driven. horozontally above water-level in the direction of the strike. This method is used where the outcrop is found in gaps and ravines. Tunnels are sometimes driven from day at right angles to the The slope having been sunk to the required depth (generally 100 yards for each lift), gangways or galleries are turned to both the right and left in the bed, and are driven in the direction of the strike on a grade of four to six inches to the 100 feet. A gutter or ditch is cut along the low side of the gangway, and through this the water passes to the sump, from which it is pumped to the surface. As the gangways must be kept upon until the final robbing of the lift is completed, it is required that they be timbered securely. Several forms of timbering are in use: 1. Single timber, i.e., where a single prop is set at right angles to the dip on the high or upper side of the gangway; 2. Post and bar, consisting of two pieces, one longer than the other, the shorter resting on the longer, forming an angle, the point of which extends up the pitch; 3. A single prop and collar, one end of the collar being notched into the top rock; 4. Double timber, consisting of two props and a collar of cross-piece. Lagging or pieces of small timber reaching from prop to prop, and collar to collar, serve to support the intervening material. The gangways are driven continuously to the lines or boundary pillars of the tract. Where a larger supply of coal is required than can be had from one lift, two or more lifts are worked at the same time. In the anthracite region, where the beds are tilted, tunnels are driven from one bed to the other, and all are worked simultaneously. The change in angles of inclination sometimes requires the sinking of underground slopes and the driving of counter-gangways to win the coal in the areas so affected. The several systems of mining now in use in the anthracite region may be summed up briefly as follows: 1. Pillar and breast; 2. Longwall; 3. Panel; 4. Veith boundary; 5. Rock-chute. In the pillar-and-breast system, which is the one almost exclusively used, the working-places are rectangular chambers, varying in width and length. Generally speaking, these are from 6 to 12 yards in width, dependent upon the character of the top-rock and the character of the coal-bed "After the twin breasts are exhausted, the pillar between them is robbed out; but when the roof is poor, only a small portion of this pillar can be obtained. itself. The length of these rooms, except where | lowest heading being within six or eight yards of the beds are tilted but slightly, seldom exceed the gangway. eighty to ninety yards. As all timber, etc., must be carried to the face of the breast from the gangway by hand, the time and labor required to perform this makes the coal won too expensive when the breasts exceed these distances. this system, pillars of coal are left on both sides of the breasts to support the roof. For the purpose of ventilation, however, small headings are driven through them as required. In The longwall system has not been introduced in the anthracite region, as its adaptability to working highly plicated beds is not admitted; but in the bituminous regions of several of the states this system is used to great advantage. The system, as its name indicates, contemplates the removal of the coal in longwalls, or faces. There are two methods, known as longwalladvancing and longwall-retreating. In longwall-advancing, the coal is removed as the work progresses, the haulage-ways being supported by the gob, or refuse, being tightly packed. In longwall-retreating, the haulage-ways are driven first to the limit of the property. Mining is then begun and carried toward the outlet, no attempt being made to support the roof after the coal has been removed. It much resembles the method of robbing in the pillar-and-breast system. The panel system, invented by Col. D. P. Brown of the Lehigh Valley Coal Company, is a modification of the pillar-and-breast system. Colonel Brown's description of the system is as follows: "When the mammoth seam is pitching from 15° to 45° and has its usual thickness, in the middle coal-field, of from 30 to 50 feet, the panel system may be commenced by driving the gangway and airway as in ordinary pillar-and-breast workings; but instead of opening breasts by driving up a shute every eight or ten yards along the course of the gangway, a shute is driven up through the seam to the gangway above, at a distance from the slope, shaft or airway sufficient to leave a thick pillar of coal to protect the main opening. At a distance of thirty or forty yards from this shute, a shute is opened, and at about thirteen yards from it a second shute is opened. These two shutes are driven up and opened out into two twin breasts, about eight yards wide, separated by a pillar of coal about five yards thick. A second pair of twin breasts is opened fifty or sixty yards from the first pair, and a third pair at an equal distance from the second, and so on. Midway between each pair of breasts a shute similar to the first is driven up to the gangway on the overlying lift. "These shutes are constructed so that the coal may run freely, and are provided with a travelingway on one side, giving the miners free access to the workings. "Small headings, or gangways, are driven in the bottom bench of coal, at right angles to these shutes, and about ten to twenty yards apart, the "To begin mining the coal in the panel (after the breasts are robbed out and abandoned), work is commenced in the upper heading, or gangway, by widening out the end like a breast, and extending the working up to the outcrop or to the next lift above, making the opening wide enough to bring down the top when a skip is taken off the solid. The coal thus falls down on the slope to a point under cover, where the laborer can load it in safety. A small mine-car or buggy is used in the panel-gangways or headings to transport the coal to the shute, down which it is thrown, to be loaded in mine-cars standing in the gangway below. "When the upper panel-gangway has been worked back a short distance, the next gangway below it is started, and this process is continued until the panel is exhausted, the miner always having a safe retreat into the panel-gangway when a fall of coal or roof is imminent.' The Philadelphia and Reading Coal and Iron Company is now using what is known as the Veith boundary plan with excellent results. It was suggested by John Veith, general mining superintendent of that company. In this plan the coal is worked by the pillar-and-breast system, but the gangway stumps are made much larger than ordinarily, and at the place of every tenth or twelfth breast a block of coal fifty to sixty yards is left solid. By this method a greater percentage of the pillar of coal can be won, while in case of a squeeze or crush it extends only over the set of breasts between these barriers. The coal thus left remains until the limit or land line has been reached and robbing back begun. Rock Chute System. By this system, which is applicable on pitching beds not too far distant from each other, all gangways and airways are driven in the underlying or smaller bed, and by means of chutes driven through the intervening rock the coal in the upper or larger bed is mined, the workings being opened out from these chutes. on the ordinary pillar-and-breast plan. At some of the collieries, by the use of this system immense bodies of coal which formerly were considered. lost, owing to squeezes in the larger bed closing the gangways, etc., have been recovered. The Slushing Process. One of the most important advances made in the mining of anthracite is the process of slushing. By slushing is meant the filling in of all worked portions of the mine with the refuse material from the breaker. Briefly, the process is as follows: Bore-holes are drilled from the surface to a worked-out breast. Batteries at the bottom of the breasts and at such other places where the material would be likely to escape are erected to hold the material. The refuse is then, by scraperlines or other contrivances, run to the mouth of the hole, where it is mixed with water, only sufficient water being used to make the slush flow freely. The slush then is run into the bore-hole, filling up the breasts or cavities. One bore-hole is sufficient for a number of breasts, as the slush flows through the heading between them. Another method is to carry the slush in pipes and deposit it at the desired points. The water passes off through the small cracks and crevices in the batteries, finds its way to the sump, and is pumped to the surface. The deposited material packs tightly; in fact, so tightly as to require the use of picks if it is desired to remove any of it at any time. With the breasts thus tightly packed, it is possible to remove the coal left in the pillar, the slush serving even better than the pillar to sustain the roof and prevent any serious crush. The town of Shenandoah, Pennsylvania, from beneath which much coal was removed, was saved from subsidence by this method. Up to the present time this method has not been used where the pitch of the bed exceeded 35°. Breasts are of three kinds, known as,- —1. Wagonbreasts; 2. Buggy-breasts; and 3. Chute-breasts. The angle of inclination of the bed determines the kind of breast to be used. Wagon-breasts are those in which the minewagon to be loaded is taken directly from the gangway to the face of the breast. These are used where the dip is slight (0°-7°). Buggy-breasts are used where the dip is too great to take the wagon to the face, and yet not sufficiently great for the coal to run down the chutes by its own weight (7°-12°). In these, small cars, called buggies, are used to carry the coal from the face to the chute leading to the platform at the mouth of the breast, from which it is shoveled into the regular mine-wagon. Chute-breasts are used where the pitch is sufficiently strong to carry the coal by gravity from. the face to the mine-wagon on the gangway (12° to 90°). In chute-breasts, instead of opening up the breast to its full width from the gangway, a chute four to six feet wide is driven to a heading ten yards above the gangway and running parallel to it, and from this point the breast is opened the full width determined upon. The chute thus made is timbered securely. Near the head of the chute a plank battery is erected to prevent the intake air-current escaping through the chute to the return airway. These have a door for ingress and egress, while a space sufficiently large for the coal to pass into the chute is left to one side, and on the bottom of the battery. This opening being generally filled up with coal, but little air escapes. On either side the breast, props, or "jugglers," are notched into the pillars, forming triangular openings, called manways. On the upper side of these, planks are nailed, thus forming a receptacle into which the slate, etc., is thrown, instead of being taken to the surface. The manways are floored with sheet-iron, and through them the coal is run to the chute below. Breasts are also driven with two chutes, and in some cases two chutes and a manway, cutting the stump between the breast. Several modifications of these plans are used, as required by circumstances. In steep-pitching breasts the surplus coal, which cannot be loaded out as soon as mined, is retained, and is drawn as required. Ventilation. The several methods of ventilations are: 1. Furnace; 2. Fans. While sinking slopes and shafts, the ventilation is accomplished by means of steam-jets, the exhaust from the drills using compressed air, or by a small suction-fan from which a pipe leads to the working-place. This pipe is extended as the work progresses. Since the passage of the Mine Law in Pennsylvania, furnace-ventilation is no longer in use in the anthracite region. Fans, either suction or blowing, have entirely taken the places of the furnaces. Fan-ventilation is rapidly superseding furnaces in the bituminous regions also. In mines developed by a shaft, a second shaft is generally sunk. (The Mine Law requires two openings.) The second shaft is generally used as an air-shaft. In slope-workings, an airway is sunk parallel to the slope, a strong pillar of coal being left between them. Parallel with the gangways, headings are driven from eight to fifteen yards up the pitch, which serve as return-airways. Headings are cut through the pillars between the breast every twenty yards, so that the air may pass from one breast to the other without being brought down to the stump or main heading. When the bed is thick, airways may be driven in the coal over the gangway, or in the coal on the same level as the gangway. The first method is used where the bed is on a steep pitch, and the latter where the dip is very slight. Cross-headings are driven from these to the working-places and the gangways as required. By means of doors, overcasts, stoppings and brattices, the air is conveyed to the desired points. The Mine Law requires mines to be divided into sections, and that each section shall have its separate current of air. The reason of this is obvious. Haulage. In this direction but little change is noticed in the anthracite region, except at a comparatively few collieries. In these the mule has given place to electric motors, steam and compressed-air locomotives, and tail-rope and endless-rope haulage. Steam mine-locomotives are objected to,1. Because of the noxious fumes thrown off; and 2. In gassy mines, because of the danger of explosions. The second objection, also, is urged against the use of electric motors. At a few anthracite mines compressed-air locomotives are in use, and seem to give most satisfactory service. Rope-haulage, however, is being introduced into a number of mines, and the results have been in most instances entirely satisfactory. |