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CŒLOM. 167, 168.

COELOM-COGNOVIT

See EMBRYOLOGY, Vol. VIII, pp.

CONOCYTE, a name applied to a plant-body or part of a body in which nuclear division has occurred, but has not been accompanied by the formation of cellwalls. The body or part is accordingly unseptate, that is, without partition-walls, although it N may be composed of numbers of protoplasmic units which in other plants are separated from one another by cell-walls. Such a plant or such a part is a "conocyte," or is said to be " conocytic." Notable illustrations of a conocyte body are found among the phycomycete fungi and siphonaceous algæ; of cœnocyte parts in Cladophora, Hydrodictyon, etc., other algæ; although the cœnoA cell of Cladophora, cytic condition is not wanting in showing cœnocy- even the highest plants. tic character, con- COERCION AND

COERtaining 11 nuclei CION ACTS. See HOME RULE, (N). (Original.) in the Supplements. CEREBIDÆ, a family of oscine passerine birds found in the warmer parts of America, popularly known as the honey-creepers. They are so closely related to the American warblers that many ornithologists dispute the division into separate families. COEYMANS, a small railroad town of Albany County, southeastern New York, where the West Shore railroad bends westward toward Buffalo, while its Albany branch keeps on northward. Soap, strawpaper and brooms are manufactured. There are flagstone-quarries here, and also a mineral spring. Population 1890, 963.

COFFEE-BUG (Lecanium caffea), an insect of the Coccus family, which lives on the coffee-tree and is extremely destructive to coffee plantations. COFFEE-TREE OR KENTUCKY COFFEE, a leguminous tree of the United States, often growing to a large size, the seeds of which have been sometimes used as a substitute for coffee. The single species is Gymnocladus Canadensis, found chiefly in the Mississippi basin, east of the prairie region. Although closely related to the "honey-locust," it is a tall, thornless tree, with large twice-pinnate leaves, small, greenish flowers in narrow racemes, and large, tough linear pods five to ten inches long. It is a fine ornamental and timber tree.

COFFER-FISH, a fish of the family Ostraciontida, often known as trunk-fishes. These fishes have all the body except the tail incased in a coat of mail, composed of large hexagonal plates, which are firmly interlocked. They are often used as food.

COFFEYVILLE, a railway city of Kansas, on the line of the Santa Fé and Missouri Pacific railroads, and a shipping-point for the Indian Territory. It is in Montgomery County. Coal and natural gas are found here. Population 1890, 2,282.

COFFIN, CHARLES, a French writer of Latin poetry; born in 1676, in Buzancy, France; died June 20, 1749, in Paris. He was principal of the Collège

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Dormans-Beauvais from 1712 until 1718, when he was chosen rector of the University of Paris, a position he retained until the time of his death. He wrote a number of drinking-songs, and, later, Latin hymns, some of which are in use to-day. These hymns were included by Cardinal Vintimilli, in 1735, in the Paris Breviary. Translations are to be found in some of the English collections.

COFFIN, CHARLES CARLETON, war correspondent, author and lecturer; born July 26, 1823, in Boscawen, New Hampshire; died in Boston, March 2, 1896; correspondent during the Civil War for the Boston Journal. He wrote a number of popular histories of the war, generally suited to young people. These works include Days and Nights on the Battlefield (1864); Boys of '76 (1879); and Freedom Triumphant (1891).

COFFIN, SIR ISAAC, a British admiral; born in Boston, Massachusetts, May 16, 1759; died in England, July 23, 1839. He entered the navy in 1773 and served against the Americans during their struggle for liberty. He was appointed vice-admiral in 1808 and admiral in 1814. He was dismissed from the navy in 1788, having been found guilty of signing a false muster, but was reinstated almost immediately. After the war he visited his native land and endowed the Coffin School at Nantucket.

COFFIN, WILLIAM ANDERSON, an American artist; born in Allegheny City, Pennsylvania, July 31, 1855. He studied under Bonnat in Paris; obtained a thirdclass medal there, at the exposition of 1889. Principal works: Close of Day; September Breeze; A Pennsylvania Farm; After the Thunder Shower; and Evening.

COGALNICEANU, MICHEL, a Roumanian statesman; born in 1806; died in Paris, July 5, 1891. At an early age he became professor of national history at Jassy. A leader in the Jassy revolution of 1848, he was exiled for a number of years. He was largely instrumental in the union of the provinces of the Danube. In 1864 he was president of the Cabinet, and from 1868 to 1870 was again a member of the Cabinet, as Minister of Internal Affairs. In 1876 he was made Minister of Foreign Affairs; later, ambassador to France, and in 1879 he became Senator. During the whole of his career he was a Liberal, and to his fearlessness are due many of the political and religious reforms of Roumania. He wrote some valuable histories, the most important being his Histoire de la Valachie et de la Moldavie, and his books on the gipsies, their origin, language, etc.

COGGESHALL, a market town in the county of Essex, England, situated on the river Blackwater, 44 miles N.E. of London. The town consists of Great and Little Coggeshall, connected by a bridge across the river, and contains a beautiful church, St. Peter's, restored in 1868, a grammar school endowed by Sir Robert Hitcham, a mechanic's institute and a public library. Its manufactures are chiefly silk, velvets, patent isinglass and gelatine. In 1142 King Stephen here founded a Cistercian abbey, part of the ground plan of which was excavated and examined in 1865. Population, 3,109.

COGNOVIT, a legal term signifying a written

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COGSWELL-COINAGE LAWS

confession of the plaintiff's cause of action, authorizing him to take judgment for an amount named. It is usually signed by the defendant, after a suit has been commenced against him, or by an attorney authorized by warrant of attorney to act for him. A warrant of attorney authorizing some attorney therein named, or any attorney of record, to enter the appearance of the defendant in any suit brought on account of the cause of action set forth in the instrument, and to confess judgment against the defendant at any time, or at a specified time in case he fails to meet the obligation, is frequently executed as a part of a note or other evidence of indebtedness. Such warrant of attorney gives the attorney named, or if none is named, any attorney, the right to execute a cognovit authorizing the entry of judgment against the debtor. This form of warrant of attorney is of frequent use in recent times throughout the United States, in order to give the creditor greater security, and to avoid delay in case he shall deem it necessary to obtain judgment.

COGSWELL, JONATHAN, an American Congregational clergyman; born Sept. 3, 1782, in Rowley, Massachusetts; died in New Brunswick, New Jersey, Aug. 1, 1864; was graduated at Harvard in 1806; tutor at Bowdoin from 1807 to 1809; was graduated with the first class at Andover Theological Seminary in 1810; pastor at Saco, Maine, until 1828; at Berlin, Connecticut, until 1834; professor of ecclesiastical history in the Connecticut Theological Institute at East Windsor for ten years. He afterward retired. He inherited a fortune from his brother and gave liberally to various church societies. He wrote a number of books, which include Hebrew Theocracy (1848); Godliness a Mystery (1857); and The Appropriate Work of the Holy Spirit (1859).

COGSWELL, JOSEPH GREEN, an American educator and librarian; born in Ipswich, Massachusetts, Sept. 27,1786; died Nov. 26, 1871, in Cambridge, Massachusetts; graduated at Harvard in 1806; tutor at Harvard from 1813 to 1815; spent two years at Göttingen University, Germany; in 182c appointed professor of geology and mineralogy at Harvard; established, with Bancroft, the Round Hill School at Northampton, Massachusetts; editor of the New York Review for a few years; librarian of the Astor Library from 1848 to 1860. His bibliographical work did much for American literature, and his scientific collections enriched the museum of Harvard College. He was a constant contributor to the better magazines of his day.

COHN, FERDINAND JULIUS, a German botanist; born in Breslau, Jan. 24, 1828. In 1850 he became private tutor and in 1870 professor of botany in the Breslau University. He belonged to the school of Schleiden, which endeavored to trace back to the development of the vegetable cell the origin of life in plants, and he devoted himself to the study of the line of demarcation between vegetable and animal life. His researches on fermentation, on the active agents of putrefaction, on miasmas, and on microbes in contagious diseases, have attracted wide attention. Among his monographs the best known are Untersuchungen über die Entwickelung der Mikroskopischen Algen und Pilze (1854); Kleine Untersuchungen über

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Bacteria (1872–75).
Bacteria (1872-75). He founded (1875) and edited
in Breslau a special periodical entitled Beiträge zur
Biologie der Planzen.

COHNHEIM, JULIUS FRIEDRICH, a German pathologist; born in Demmin, Prussia, July 20, 1839; died at Leipsic, Aug. 14, 1884. He practiced medicine for a while, and in 1864 became connected with the Berlin Charity Hospital. In 1868 he became professor of pathology in the University of Kiel, in 1872 at Breslau, and in 1878 at Leipsic. He made many important discoveries in pathology, especially in regard to pus corpuscles, and wrote several books on this subject; among them, Tuberculosis, from the infection-theory standpoint, and Introduction to General Pathology.

COHOSH, the Indian name of a number of plants used in medicine, the principal of which are Cimicifuga racemosa, Actaea alba and spicata, and Caulophyllum thalietroides. The first two belong to Ranunculacea, or the "crowfoot family"; the last to Berberidacea, or "barberry family."

COHUNE OIL, a fixed oil obtained from the kernel of the fruit of Attalea Cohune, a palm abundant in Honduras and on the Isthmus of Panama. The leaves are thirty feet in length, and each leaflet measures three feet, while the tree attains a height of only about forty feet. This oil is frequently used as a substitute for cocoanut-oil.

*COINAGE LAWS. The first coinage laws of the United States government became a law in 1792. It provided two standards of value, one of gold, the other of silver,—the latter, of equal face value, to be 15 times greater in weight than the former. Under it, depositors of either metal could obtain at the mint, on equal terms, either gold or silver coins in payment therefor. This plan is known as free coinage. age. Under the ratio fixed by the act mentioned, an owner of silver could generally get more for his metal at the mint than in the market, and, conse quently, silver came in for coinage pretty freely. At that time a Mexican Spanish dollar, containing about two per cent more silver than the United States standard dollar, was freely received in circulation, and astute brokers quietly changed the latter for these foreign pieces at home and abroad, exporting the inferior coin in great numbers for purpose of such exchange. The foreign pieces received were then deposited for coinage, yielding to the owner a profit of two per cent, but the process drove the United States dollar out of home-circulation. To prevent this abuse, President Jefferson, in 1806, stopped the coinage of the silver dollar pieces. Since that time no silver dollars have been coined for circulation under a free coinage law, those manufactured having been exclusively for exportation. The legalizing of foreign coins, as provided by Congress, and the undervaluation of gold pieces in comparison with silver, effectually kept the gold coin from circulation. To change this, and avowedly to bring gold into circulation, Congress, in 1834, reduced the weight of gold coins about seven per cent. The measure, which met with but little opposition in either house, was championed in the Senate as an administration measure by Senator Thomas H. Benton, and was approved by President Andrew

*Copyright, 1897, by The Werner Company.

COINS OF THE UNITED STATES

Jackson, June 28, 1834. The law had the desired effect. Gold at once became the standard of value, and coins of that metal entered freely into circulation, to the exclusion of silver. Later, in 1853, authority was given the Secretary of the Treasury to purchase silver and coin it into fractional parts of a dollar, reduced in weight in order to keep them from being melted down. No opposition to this measure was developed, and it furnished the country, for the first time, with its own so-called subsidiary silver pieces, which would remain in circulation as long as the circulation was continued upon a gold

basis.

The introduction of the demand notes of 1861 and the United States notes (greenbacks) of 1862 drove gold from circulation, except that enough remained for payment of duties, as required by law, at our ports of entry, for payment of coin interest on the public debt, and for general circulation in the Pacific states, where public sentiment would not permit the greenbacks to be used as money. Silver coins also disappeared from circulation.

It was

The passage of the act of March 19, 1869, "to strengthen the public credit," by pledging the payment of public obligations in coin, would evidently, in a short time, require a largely increased coinage by the mints. The coinage laws as they then existed were scattered through the several volumes of United States statutes from 1792 to 1853, and in many respects were imperfect and conflicting. deemed advisable by the Treasury Department to revise and codify these laws, that the coinage of gold and silver, essential to carrying out the act of 1869, might be promptly executed. On April 25, 1870, a bill for the purpose was sent to Congress by the Secretary of the Treasury, from which the authority to coin the silver dollar was omitted, but provision was made for subsidiary silver coins. This bill, pending in Congress for three years, was the subject of much discussion, and on Feb. 12, 1873, became a law, practically with no opposition. In lieu of the silver dollar, authority was given to coin a trade dollar of 420 grains' weight, at the expense of the depositor. This coin, as its name indicates, was intended only for exportation. The depreciation in silver which followed enabled the depositor to put this coin into home circulation at a profit. The coin was made a legal tender to the amount of five dollars, but by an act approved July 22, 1876, Congress took from it its legal-tender quality, and at the same time authorized the Secretary of the Treasury to limit its coinage to its demand for exportation. The coinage of this dollar practically ceased in 1878, and its further issue was prohibited by law in 1887

The fall in the value of silver, in its relation with gold, could not be foreseen. Had the measure of 1873 not been enacted, the silver dollar would have become the standard of value in 1874, and would have remained so ever since, to the exclusion of gold. The further coinage of the silver dollar, however, on government account, as in the case of minor coins, has been carried on under the acts of Feb. 28, 1878, and July 12, 1890, to the extent of about $423,000,000. The entire amount coined

857

previous to 1873 was only $8,031,238, and that mainly for exportation. No silver of any kind was in circulation when the act of 1873 was passed.

The average price, in gold, of the bullion in a silver dollar for the last two years has been about a half-dollar, and the change to a silver standard which would unquestionably ensue from the free coinage of both metals at a ratio of 16 to 1 would enable the debtor class to satisfy their obligations under a new standard having a purchasing power of about one half of the present (1896) one. The result of the experiment already made, of purchasing, for more than three years, the domestic product of silver, and burying it in the public vaults with a view to enhance the price of that metal, should warn men against hoping that any legislation will be likely to effect any considerable increase in its price. The average price of the silver in a dollar fell from $0.806 in 1890 to $0.603 in 1893, or about 25 per cent, though the government was absorbing in its vaults nearly all the domestic production, leaving the supply for the arts and manufactures to importation. No different result could be expected from free coinage. See also FINANCES OF THE UNITED STATES, in these Supplements. JOHN SHERMAN.

*COINS OF THE UNITED STATES. The first coinage in the American colonies was in 1652, when the general court of Massachusetts established a mint in Boston, and John Hull, mint-master, struck silver shillings, sixpences and threepences. All of these coins bore the device of the pine-tree. They were of the same fineness as the English coins of like denomination, but of less weight. This mint continued in operation for 36 years. After a while the "royal oak" was substituted for the pine-tree, in order to conciliate King Charles II, who disliked this minting by a colony. All the above-named coins bore the date of 1652. But twopenny pieces were added with the date of 1662. No other colony had a mint until 1659, when Lord Baltimore caused shillings, sixpences and groats to be coined for use in Maryland. James II issued ten coins for circulation in America, though few of these found their way hither. In 1722, 1723 and 1733 copper coins were minted in England with the legend "Rosa Americana." There were also copper halfpence issued in 1773 for circulation in Virginia, and in 1774 silver shillings were added. Florida and Louisiana had colonial coins of their own before they became parts of the United States.

After the Revolutionary War the Continental Congress passed an act, in 1786, which established a mint and regulated the value and alloy of the national coin. The government prescribed the device for copper coin the next year. Under this authority the so-called "Franklin penny," with the legend, "Mind your business," was made by contract. By the Federal constitution, ratified in 1789, the right of coining money was transferred from the states to the United States. Under this constitution the United States mint was established at Philadelphia in 1792, and the regular coinage began in the following year. Congress had, by an act of Aug. 8, 1786, and a resolution of July 6, 1787, established the dollar as the monetary unit.

* Copyright, 1897, by The Werner Company.

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COINS OF THE UNITED STATES

The following table gives the weight and fineness. of all the denominations used in the United States. It also shows the dates of the various acts of Congress which authorized their issue; what length of time each issue continued, when it was discontinued, when, as in certain instances, the issue was resumed, as well as the metals of which they are composed:

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FINENESS.

91623
899.225
900
91623
899.225
900

91623
899.925

892.4
900

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900

April 2, 1792

270

June 28, 1834

258

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900

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900

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900

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900

July 22, 1876
April 2, 1792

208

Jan. 18, 1837

2064

Feb. 21, 1853

192

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892.4
900

892.4

892.4 900

892.4

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The etymology of the word dollar is the English form of the German word thaler, which is itself a contracted form or equivalent for Joachimsthal (Joachim's dale), at which place the silver used in the mintage was mined, toward the end of the fifteenth century. The name is applied to the German silver dollar (thaler); also to similar coins in the Netherlands and Norway and Sweden; to the large silver coin of Spain (the Spanish dollar, or peso); and to the silver coin which superseded the Spanish dollar in Spanish America. The dollar is the monetary unit of the United States and Canada,--in the former being represented by gold and silver coins as well as by notes, in the latter by notes alone. Newfoundland has in use a gold coin representing two dollars in value.

The act of April 2, 1792, besides establishing the coinage mint at Philadelphia, fixed the values of the coins, providing for "dollars or units, each to be of the value of a Spanish milled dollar," as that coin was then current in the United States, and containing 3714 grains of pure silver, or 416 grains of standard silver. An act of Jan. 18, 1837, fixed the weight of the dollar at 412% grains troy, nine tenths fine, the quantity of pure silver being the same as provided by the act of April 12, 1792. This dollar was undervalued, and quickly went out of circulation.

The trade dollar was a coin authorized by the act of 1873, having a weight of 420 grains, but ceased to be coined in 1883. It was intended for use in the trade with China and Japan. By an act of March 1, 1887, the Treasurer of the United States was authorized to redeem in standard silver dollars all trade dollars presented within six months following.

The coinage of gold dollars was directed by an act of March 3, 1849. These gold dollars consisted of 25.8 grains, nine tenths fine, 23.22 being pure gold. By the act of 1873 this gold dollar was declared the unit value of the United States, and the further coinage of the standard silver dollar was discontinued. The coinage of standard silver dollars was resumed in 1878, according to the act of February 28th of that year, known as the Bland-Allison Act, which directed the Secretary of the Treasury to purchase silver bullion to the amount of not less than $2,000,000, and not more than $4,000,000, per month, to be coined into standard silver dollars. This coinage was continued by the act of July 14, 1890, providing that the Secretary of the Treasury should purchase, from time to time, silver bullion to the aggregate amount of 4,500,000 ounces, or so much thereof as may be offered, each month. Nov. 1, 1893, the act repealing the purchasing clause of the act of 1890 was passed. Since that date the purchase of silver bullion by the government of the United States has consisted of the silver contained in gold deposits, the small fractions of silver for return in fine bars, the amount retained in payment 95% copper; 5% of charges, surplus silver returned by the operative officers of the mints at the annual settlement, and mutilated domestic silver coin purchased for the subsidiary silver coinage under the provisions of section 3526 of the Revised Statutes.

75% copper; 25%

nickel.

95% copper; 5%
tin and zinc.

88% copper; 12%
nickel.

tin and zinc.

The value of a United States silver dollar, as

COKE COLBY UNIVERSITY

measured by the market price of silver and the quantity of silver purchasable with a dollar at the average London price of silver, was, in 1873, $1.016; in 1878, $0.936; in 1890, $0.926, and in 1893, $0.655; and it has decreased since.

The standard fineness for both coins, silver and gold, is nine tenths, one tenth being alloy. The gold dollar is generally estimated at an exchangeable value of 4s. 2d. in Great Britain.

By the act of Congress establishing the United States mint, the following coins were authorized: Gold, eagle, half-eagle, quarter-eagle; silver, dollar, half-dollar, quarter-dollar, dime, half-dime; copper, cent, half-cent. Changes have been made at various times, not only in weight and fineness, but also in the metals used for the minor coins. At present the following coins are struck: Gold, double eagle, eagle, half-eagle, three-dollar, quarter-eagle, dollar; silver, dollar, half-dollar, quarter-dollar, dime; minor coins, of nickel and bronze, five-cent, three-cent and cent. By the act of Feb. 12, 1873, the metric system was to a certain extent used in determining the weight of the silver coins. Thus the half-dollar was to weigh 121⁄2 grams, the quarter-dollar 64 grams, the dime 22 grams.

Up to 1849, eagles, or ten-dollar gold pieces, were the highest denomination authorized. But the discovery of gold in large quantity in California caused a demand for a larger coin, and the double eagle was authorized by act of March 3, 1849, and issued in 1850. By the same act gold dollars were also authorized. Besides the governmental issues, there were octagonal and ring dollars, and even gold halfdollars and quarter-dollars, issued in California. The Mormons in Utah also had gold coins of their own. These had peculiar devices, and their favorite inscription, "Holiness to the Lord." Although the United States constitution prohibits coining by the states, it has been held that individuals may issue coins which are not similar to the national coinage. In December, 1892, a special silver half-dollar was issued by the United States to commemorate the World's Fair at Chicago, the entire issue of 5,000,000 coins immediately selling at one dollar each. J. F. CARGILL.

COKE, RICHARD, United States Senator from Texas; born in Williamsburg, Virginia, March 13, 1829; served in the Confederate army as private and captain, and after the war became judge of the supreme court of Texas. In 1873, and again in 1876, he was elected governor. On March 4, 1877, he took his seat in the United States Senate, to which he was re-elected in 1883 and 1889, but was defeated in 1895.

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open-air preaching and holding cottage services, he joined the Methodists, and served as president of the English and Irish conferences in 1782, 1797 and 1805. In 1784 he arrived in New York, having been set apart by Wesley as "superintendent" of the societies in America. He made nine voyages to America, and died on the Indian Ocean, May 2, 1814, while on a missionary voyage to Ceylon, having devoted his life to the cause of Methodist foreign missions. Among his numerous writings are a Life of Wesley, History of the West Indies; Commentary on the Holy Scriptures; etc.

COL, a depression or pass in a mountain range. In those parts of the Alps where the French language prevails, the passes are usually named cols; as, the Col-de-Balme, the Col-du-Géant, etc.

COLA, KOLA OR GOORA NUT. See NUT, Vol. XVII, p. 664.

COLBAN, ADOLPHINE MARIE (SCHMIDT), a Norwegian novelist; born in Christiania, Norway, Dec. 18, 1814; died at Rome, March 27, 1884. She was left a widow at thirty, and obliged to earn her own living; visited Paris, and was employed by a journal there to go to Rome as Italian correspondent. She has written numerous novels, among which may be mentioned I Live (1877); An Old Maid (1879); Cleopatra (1880); and Thyra (1882).

COLBURN, WARREN, an American mathematician and educator; born March 1, 1793, in Dedham, Massachusetts; died Sept. 13, 1833, in Lowell, Massachusetts. He graduated at Harvard in 1820; for several years was superintendent of a manufacturing company at Waltham, Massachusetts; engaged in teaching at Lowell, and was examiner in mathematics at Harvard. He published First Lessons in Intellectual Arithmetic, an Algebra and a Sequel to the arithmetic.

COLBURN, ZERAH, an American mathematical prodigy; born Sept. 1, 1804, in Cabot, Vermont; died March 2, 1840, in Norwich, Vermont. At a very early age he was exhibited in America, England, Scotland, Ireland and France, mentally solving intricate problems with great facility. At the age of nine he was able to answer immediately questions like, What is 999,9992 X 492 X 25? In 1820 he became a teacher in London, performing astronomical calculations at the same time for Dr. Thomas Young, then secretary of the Board of Longitude. he united with the Methodist Church and was for nine years an itinerant preacher. In 1835 he became professor of languages in Norwich University, Vermont, which position he held till his death. His remarkable faculty disappeared as he grew to manhood.

In 1825

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COLBY UNIVERSITY, formerly Waterville College; located at Waterville, Maine; chartered by the Baptist Church in 1813, the charter being taken under the laws of Massachusetts; reorganized under the laws of Maine in 1821. The name was changed in 1867 to Colby University, in honor of a Boston philanthropist, Gardner Colby, through whose generosity the institution had greatly prospered. The university is co-educational, but separate classes for each sex are conducted. The president in 1896 was the Rev. Nathaniel Butler. There were 15 in the

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