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general of brigade in 1880. He commanded the brigade of Guards in the Egyptian expedition of 1882, was commander of the forces in Bengal, India, and later held various English commands, being advanced to the rank of full general on being appointed commander-in-chief at Aldershot. CONNECTICUT. The population of Connecticut in 1890, according to the decennial cen

In June, 1884, at the Chicago convention, he nominated General Grant for President in an eloquent speech, the opening lines of which have become historical:

"When asked what state he hails from,
Our sole reply shall be,

He comes from Appomattox and
Its famous appletree."

Mr. Conkling declined the nomination of justice of the United States supreme court, offered by President Arthur, and practiced law until his death, which was occasioned by exposure to the memorable snowstorm which swept New York City in the early part of 1888.

CONLIN, BERNARD, American actor; known to the public as WILLIAM J. FLORENCE; born in Albany, New York, July 26, 1831. In his boyhood he took part in neighborhood amateur theatricals, and first appeared as a professional in the character of Peter, in the Stranger, at Richmond, Virginia, Dec. 4, 1849. He went to New York, and for the next three years took star parts and supported Forrest at Niblo's Garden, Wallack's Theater and the Broadway Theater. He married Malvina Pray in 1853. She afterward starred with him in America and England, and contributed much to the successes of his life. Florence is best known for his characterization of Bardwell, in the Mighty Dollar; Sir Lucius O'Trigger to Joseph Jefferson's Bob Acres, in the Rivals; and with the same actor, in the Heir at Law, as Zekiel Homespun. It has been said that in adaptability to parts and in portrayal of varied emotions he has never been equaled. He died in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Nov. 20, 1891.

CONNAUGHT AND STRATHEARN, ARTHUR WILLIAM PATRICK ALBERT, DUKE OF, the third son of Victoria, Queen of England, was born at Buckingham Palace, May 1, 1850. He entered. the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich in 1866 as a cadet; was commissioned a lieutenant in the Royal Engineers in 1868 and in the Royal Artillery in 1869. Thence he was trained in infantry duties in the Rifle Brigade, attaining the rank of captain in 1871. On obtaining his majority in that year, Parliament voted him an annual sum of $75,000, adding $50,000 more on his marriage to the Princess Louise Margaret of Prussia, March 13, 1879. After various appointments on the staff, including that of assistant adjutant-general at

QUI

STATE SEAL OF CONNECTICUT.

sus, was 746,258, an increase of nearly 20 per cent over that of 1880, which was 622,700. The inhabitants of the state, other than white, consisted of 12,820 colored, 129 Asiatics and 24 Indians. The rank among the states and territories in 1890 was twenty-ninth, a fall of one since the census of 1880. The male population constituted 49.52 per cent of the entire number, and the female 50.48 per cent. A little over 51 per cent of the entire population live in the 17 cities of the state.

The climate of Connecticut is not subject to extremes of either heat or cold, the mean for summer being about 68°, that for winter about 28°. The mean annual rainfall averages close to 52 inches. During 1893 the total number of deaths in the state was 14,901, or about 18 per 1,000 of population, accepting the estimate for that year as given by the state officials, which was 797,450.

Manufacturing, long the leading industry of the state, was increased during the decade preceding the census of 1890 over the one of 1870 to 1880 by exactly the same percentage that marked the growth of population during the same period, viz.; 19.84 per cent. The census report gives the number of manufacturing establishments as 6,822; their aggregate capital, $227,004,496; employees, 149,939; product of the value of $248,336,364; and wages paid, $75,990, 600. These figures all give the rank of fifth to the state, but in diversity of manufactures the rank is first. The manufacture of cotton-goods comes first in importance among the many lines produced, that of woolens ranking second. After these come hardware, brass and copper goods of all kinds, sewingmachines, silk and silk goods, plated and Britannia ware, mixed textiles, paper, clocks, tools, boots and shoes, hats and caps, rubber boots and shoes, and rubber goods, etc.

The agitation of the subject of child-labor in factories has borne its best fruits in Connecticut, where the number of children employed was cut down from 8,845 in 1880 to 3,085 in 1890, the greatest decrease recorded in any of the states. Trade and industrial education has also received much attention, and some excellent schools have

of New York and Philadelphia. Menhaden and oyster fisheries are conducted on an extensive scale, and yield a large revenue.

The state institutions include the state prison at Wethersfield, where about 550 convicts are confined; the Connecticut Hospital for the Insane, at Middletown, accommodating about 1,500 inmates; the Connecticut School for Boys, and the Connecticut Institute and Industrial School for the Blind, both model institutions; two schools for deaf mutes, one of which was the first established in the United States; and the Home for Dependent and Neglected Children, and the Connecticut School for Imbeciles. In addition, there

are several state and general hospitals. The humane institutions of the state cost for maintenance during 1895, $236,000.

The most populous city is New Haven, which, according to the census of 1890, had 81, 298 inhabitants. Hartford, the capital, had at the same time a population of 53,230; Bridgeport, 48,866; Waterbury, 28,646; Meriden, 21,652; New Britain, 19,007; Norwalk, 17,747; Danbury, 16,552; Norwich, 16, 156; Stamford, 15,700; New London, 13,757; Ansonia, 10, 342; Middletown, 9,013; Willimantic, 8,648; Rockville, 7,772; Bristol, 7,382; Winsted, 4,846.

The following is a list of the governors of Connecticut since the state organization in 1784, with the date of their inauguration:

Matthew Griswold, 1784; Samuel Huntington, 1786; Oliver Wolcott, 1796; Jonathan Trumbull, 1798; John Treadwell, 1809; Roger Griswold, 1811; John Cotton Smith, 1813; Oliver Wolcott, 1818; Gideon Jomlinson, 1827; John S. Peters, 1831; Henry W. Edwards, 1833; Samuel A. Foote, 1834; Henry W. Edwards, 1835; William W. Ellsworth, 1838; Chauncey F. Cleveland, 1842; Roger S. Baldwin, 1844; Isaac Toucey, 1846; Clark Bissell, 1847; Joseph Trumbull, 1849; Thomas H. Seymour, 1850; C. H. Pond (acting), 1853; Henry Dutton, 1854; William T. Minor, 1855; Alexander H. Holley, 1857; William A. Buckingham, 1858; Joseph R. Hawley, 1866; James E. English, 1867; Marshall Jewell, 1869; James E. English, 1870; Marshall Jewell, 1869; James E. English, 1870; Marshall Jewell, 1871; Charles R. Ingersoll, 1873; Richard D. Hubbard, 1877; Charles B. Andrews, 1879; Hobart B. Bigelow, 1881; Thomas M. Waller, 1883; Henry B. Harrison, 1885; Phineas C. Lounsbury, 1887; Morgan G. Bulkeley, 1889; Luzon B. Morris, 1893; O. Vincent Coffin, 1895-97; L. A. Cooke, 1897. See CONNECTICUT, Vol. VI, pp. 285-289. CONNECTICUT RIVER, a river of New England, which rises in northern New Hampshire and flows in a southerly direction, separating Vermont from New Hampshire and crossing Massachusetts and Connecticut, when it enters Long Island Sound, at Saybrook. It is about 450 miles long, and is navigable for 50 miles for boats drawing eight feet of water. The river is noted for its shad-fishing; the alluvial valleys along its banks are famous for their rich growth of tobacco, and along the northern portions the scenery is pictu

897

resque and romantic. The Connecticut falls over 1,600 feet in its course.

CONNELLSVILLE, a railroad junction of Fayette County, southwestern Pennsylvania, situated on the Youghiogheny River, on the Baltimore and Ohio and the Pennsylvania railroads. It is the center of the coke-burning industry, nearly twenty thousand ovens being engaged in burning the Connellsville coke, which is considered the best coke obtainable. Bituminous coal is mined and paper and woolen goods manufactured. Population, not including the suburbs, where most of the coke-burners live, 5,629.

CONNERSVILLE, the capital of Fayette County, southeastern Indiana, situated on Whitewater River, on the Cincinnati, Cleveland and Dayton, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis and the Lake Erie and Western railroads. The city has a handsome courthouse and manufactories of woolens, furniture, blowers, etc. Population 1890, 4,548.

CONNOR, a small food-fish found in European seas and along the Atlantic coast of the United States. It is also known as gilt-head and golden-maid.

CONODONTS, small Palæozoic fossils found in Russia, which resemble the teeth of various fishes. They are probably the remains of worms or mollusks. See also ICHTHYOLOGY, Vol. XII, p. 666.

CONRAD, ROBERT TAYLOR, an American lawyer with a taste for authorship; born in Philadelphia, June 10, 1810; the son of a publisher, he was educated for the bar, but embarked in newspaper work, publishing the Daily Commercial Intelligencer in 1832; two years later, on account of impaired health, returned to the law; judge of the criminal sessions for the city and county of Philadelphia; in 1854 elected mayor of his native city; re-appointed to his judicial position in 1856; best known for his tragedy of Aylmere, in which Edwin Forrest took the part of Jack Cade. He died in Philadelphia, June 27, 1858.

CONRAD, TIMOTHY ABBOTT, an American palæontologist and conchologist; born in New Jersey, August, 1803. He commenced very early in life to investigate American palæontology and natural history, with special reference to the tertiary and cretaceous formations, and to existing specimens of mollusks. He was paleontologist of the New York geological survey from 1838 to 1841; reported on the scientific discoveries. made on the Pacific railroad survey and also on the Mexican boundary survey. He defended the theory of periodical refrigeration, and evolved the theory that the Mississippi depression was the consequence of the upheaval of the Appalachians and the later elevation of the Rocky Mountain area. His works include Fossil Shells of the Tertiary Formation of North America (1832); New Fresh-Water Shells of the United States (1838); and Paleontology of the State of New York (183840). He died August 9, 1877.

CONSCIENCE. See ETHICS, Vol. VIII, pp. 574 et seq.

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CONSCIENCE, HENDRIK, a Belgian author; born in Antwerp, Dec. 3, 1812. From 1830 to 1836 he carried a musket in the Belgian army and composed patriotic songs. On the completion of his military service he with difficulty obtained a livelihood as a working gardener and as a village schoolmaster. In 1838 he identified In 1838 he identified himself with the Anti-French League, urging on his countrymen the adoption of the Flemish language in literature and conversation. His books, written in Flemish, became essentially popular, and were translated into most of the European languages. He was appointed instructor in Flemish to the children of the King of the Belgians, and the burghers of Antwerp honored him with a statue before his death. Among his novels may be mentioned The Lion of Flanders: Jacob van Artevelde; Valentyn; and The Lost Glove. Conscience died in Brussels, Sept. 12, 1883. CONSCIOUSNESS. See METAPHYSICS, Vol. XVI, p. 92; and PHYSIOLOGY, Vol. XIX, pp. 20,

41.

For different theories of consciousness, see CARTESIANISM, Vol. V, p. 142; COUSIN, Vol. VI, p. 525; HAMILTON, Vol. XI, p. 417; and LOCKE, Vol. XIV, p. 758.

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY. ERGY, Vol. VIII, p. 207.

See EN

CONSERVATORS OF THE PEACE are such officers as are vested with the power, and upon whom the duty is imposed, to preserve the peace. It is frequently provided by statute in the various states what officers shall be classed as conservators of the peace. Among the officers usually included in this class are judges, justices of the peace, sheriffs, constables, police-officers, the mayor of a city, and other officers who, by virtue of their offices, are charged with the duty of seeing that the public peace is kept. Such officers are clothed with the right to quell public disturbances and arrest any person guilty of a breach of the peace.

CONSHOHOCKEN, a town of Montgomery County, southeastern Pennsylvania, situated on the Schuylkill River, about three miles below Norristown, on the Pennsylvania and the Philadelphia and Reading railroads. It produces a variety of manufactures, including iron, cotton, shoddy and pottery. It is a well-built and growing town. Population 1890, 5,470.

CONSIDÉRANT, VICTOR PROSPER, a French socialist; born in 1808 at Salins, in the department of Jura. After being educated at the Polytechnic School of Paris, he entered the army, which, however, he soon left, to promulgate the doctrines of the socialist Fourier. In 1849 Considérant was accused of high treason and compelled to flee from France. In Texas he founded a socialist community, La Réunion, which flourished for a time. He returned to France in 1869, and wrote some works on socialism and labor, chief among which are Principles of Socialism; Laws of Labor; and Theory of the Laws of Property. Died Dec. 27, 1893. CONSIDERATION, in law, is the material cause which induces one party to enter into a

contract with another. Considerations are classed as good, as those of natural love or affection, and the like; or valuable, as the performance of some act or the conferring of some benefit to or upon the party to whom the promise is made, or some third party at his request. A beneficial consideration, however slight the benefit, is sufficient to constitute a valuable consideration, and in the absence of fraud the extent of the benefit will not be inquired into as between the parties. to the contract. Without a consideration, either good or valuable, a contract cannot exist. Such a promise is called, in law, a nudum pactum, and cannot be enforced. But, at common law, in a contract under seal, a consideration is conclusively presumed, and evidence will not be admitted to deny the consideration. This rule arises from the solemnity and fullness of assent which the act of attaching a seal imports. In many states this rule has been relaxed by custom, or abolished by statute, and the want or failure of consideration may be a good defense against a sealed | instrument. A contract based upon a good consideration alone will be enforced as between the parties, if made in good faith, but is void as to a subsequent purchaser for value and without. notice, or creditors who are not able to procure other property of the debtor from which to realize their demands. The rule is, that one must be just before he is generous, and when the title to property is passed without valuable consideration, or for a consideration wholly inadequate, creditors may have the transfer set aside or require the payment of the value of the property, so that their demands may be satisfied. But generally, such step can be taken only when the debt existed at the time the property was transferred. In contracts where the consideration is expressed, and in negotiable instruments, the consideration is presumed, but such presumption may be overcome by proof.

CONSISTORY, properly, any place of assembly. According to St. Cyprian it was a most ancient custom of the church that the bishop should do nothing of importance without the meeting and advice of his clergy. The Roman Church early adopted this custom, and the priests and deacons of Rome, together with bishops of other cities who happened to be there, met with the pontiff, and with him decided all causes which were referred from every part of the world to this primary church. Similar was the rule of all metropolitan and cathedral churches, and from this practice sprang the cathedral chapter.

66

About the time of Constantine, the meeting of the pope with his advisers was given the name consistory," and to-day it means "the solemn assembly or congregation which is made up of the pope and the college of cardinals gathered together as a senate in the Apostolic Palace." (See CARDINALS, in these Supplements.) In olden times the consistory was the only tribunal in the papal court, and in it the Roman pontiffs used to decide all causes which now are examined and decided by the various congregations of cardinals.

(See CONGREGATIONS, ROMAN, in these Supplements.) Hence it met nearly every day, and heard, also, contentious causes. Later, much business was confided to commissions, and a number of permanent tribunals were instituted. Thus it was brought about that only important business was reserved for the consistory.

At the present time a consistory is either ordinary and secret, or solemn and public. Public consistories are called at the will of the pontiff, and in our times are celebrated but once or twice a year. What may be called a semipublic consistory is held when the canonization of a saint is in progress. To it all the bishops and archbishops, titular and residential, who may be in Rome at the time, are admitted. They may also vote. Such a consistory takes on the appearance of a general council, and in a manner represents the universal church.

The ordinary or secret consistories, according to former custom, were held twice a month, the usual time being Monday forenoon; but now the day and hour, as well as the consistory itself, depend entirely on the will of the pontiff. Notice is given the cardinals of the court, usually the day before the consistory. At the appointed time they are present, vested in cappa magna, rochet and beretta, and sit on wooden benches. The pontiff is dressed in ordinary white cassock, rochet, mozetta and pontifical beretta, and occupies a seat somewhat elevated, and covered with a baldachino. In secret consistory the pope is accustomed to address the cardinals on the general condition of the church, or on some storm which has broken out against it in some part of the world. also points out errors and dangerous doctrines, to the end that, these allocutions being published to the world later, bishops, priests and people belonging to the church may be warned against such errors. The business brought before the consistory is prepared usually by the consistorial congregation, but sometimes by the congregation for extraordinary ecclesiastical affairs. The decrees of the consistory are issued by the apostolic chancery. See CONSISTORY, Vol. VI, p. 292. P. A. BAART. CONSOLATO DEL MARE. See CONSULATE OF THE SEA, Vol. VI, p. 317; PRIZE, Vol. XIX, p. 766.

He

CONSTABLE. In the United States, constables are officers exercising duties similar to those of petty constables in England. They have, to a limited extent, the powers of conservators of the peace. The chief duty of constables is the service of writs in matters arising in justice of the peace courts. They are also authorized to arrest, without warrant, any one who may be guilty of a breach of the public peace in their presence, or whom they may reasonably suspect of felony. The jurisdiction of a constable is confined to the county in which he resides. The office is elective, one or more constables being elected from each township or district within the county. See CONSTABLE, Vol. VI, p. 294.

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CONSTANS, JEAN ANTOINE ERNEST, a French. politician; born at Béziers, France, May 3, 1833; was professor of law in Toulouse; Republican member of the Chamber of Deputies (1876); Minister of the Interior (1880-82); minister to China (1885-87); governor-general of Indo-China (188788); elected a Senator in 1889, and Minister of the Interior (1889-1892). The overthrow of the Boulangist infatuation was in a great measure due to his uncompromising vigor. Constans was one of the very few French statesmen unsoiled by the revelations in the Panama scandal.

CONSTANT, JEAN JOSEPH BENJAMIN, a French painter; born in Paris, June 10, 1845. He studied in the École des Beaux

BENJAMIN CONSTANT.

Arts, and under Cabanel, and first exhibited at the Salon in 1869, with his Hamlet and the King, which was purchased by the French government. He is best known for his treatment of Eastern subjects. Among the best of his works are Prisoners in Morocco (1875); Mahomet II (1876); The Harem (1878); The Favorite of the Emir (1879);

One

The Day After a Victory in the Alhambra (1882); and The Vengeance of the Chérif (1885). of the most popular of contemporary French painters, he won many medals and the Legion of Honor, and figured at the Chicago World's Fair, 1893, where a series of decorated panels executed by him for the Sorbonne attracted considerable attention. See

CONSTANT-CURRENT MACHINES. ELECTRICITY, §83, in these Supplements.

CONSTANTIA, a district of Cape Colony, South Africa, lying on the eastern and northeastern slopes of Table Mountain range, between Cape Town and Simons Bay. The district consists of three estates, High, Great and Little Constantia, which have long been famed for the quality of their wines.

CONSTANTINE, a village of St. Joseph County, Southwestern Michigan, on the St. Joseph River, and on the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern railroad, 94 miles S. W. of Lansing. The river gives abundant water-power; it has a large peppermint-oil manufactory. Population 1895, 1, 193.

CONSTANTINE, NIKOLAEVITCH, GRAND DUKE, the second son of the Emperor Nicholas I, and the brother of Alexander II, of Russia; born Sept. 21, 1827. During the Crimean War he commanded the Russian fleet of the Baltic. On the outbreak of the Polish insurrection in 1862, he held the office of viceroy of Poland for three months, and was appointed in 1865, and again in 1878, president of the Council of the Empire. In 1882 he was dismissed from this dignity, as well as from the command of the fleet, on the suspicion of having intrigued with the revolutionary party. He died Jan. 25, 1892.