COTTA-COTTONSEED lied to the hawthorn and medlar. The species are COTTAGE CITY, a summer resort of Massachusetts and a noted camp-meeting ground, situated on the northeast shore of Martha's Vineyard, about thirty miles from New Bedford. Population 1895, 1,038. COTTEREAU, JEAN, the leader of the CHOUANS; q.v., Vol. V, p. 686. COTTIDÆ, a family of shore fishes inhabiting the Arctic regions. See ICHTHYOLOGY, Vol. XII, p. 690. COTTING, JOHN RUGGLES, an American scientist; born in Acton, Massachusetts, in 1787; was educated at Harvard and Dartmouth medical schools; then devoted his time to the study of chemistry and allied sciences. In 1835 went to Augusta, Georgia, and made a geological survey of two counties; afterward started a survey of the whole state, but failed through lack of financial support; published Introduction to Chemistry (1822) and Synopsis of Lectures on Geology (1825). Died in Milledgeville, Georgia, Oct. 13, 1867. COTTON. See COTTON, Vol. VI, pp. 482-508; and AGRICULTURE, in these Supplements. COTTON, JAMES SUTHERLAND, an English writer and editor; born in the Madras presidency, July 17, 1847; educated at Winchester and Oxford; called to the bar in 1874; assistant to Sir W. W. Hunter, the great English authority on Indian affairs; the author of several Indian blue-books; contributed to this ENCYCLOPEDIA and Leslie Stephen's Dictionary of National Biography; edited The Academy, and conducted an annual containing important acts of Parliament, entitled Paterson's Practical Statutes. COTTON, JOHN, an American divine; born in Derby, England, Dec. 4, 1585; entered Trinity College, Cambridge, at the age of 13, obtaining a fellowship at Emmanuel College, where he gained a high reputation for learning; about 1612 became minister at Boston, in Lincolnshire, when his Puritan ideas imbibed at college brought him into disfavor with Bishop Laud. Cotton removed to London, and from there to Boston, Massachusetts, where he was chosen pastor of the first church of Boston, organized in 1630. This connection he kept up until his death. Cotton wrote nearly fifty books, all published in England. He was chosen by the general court of New England to draw up an 925 abstract of the laws of Moses for use in the colony; but it was not adopted, a revised form supposed to have been the work of Cotton and Sir Henry Vane being afterward adopted and printed. He died in Boston, Dec. 23, 1652. COTTON-GRASS, a popular name for the genus Eriophorum, plants of the family Cyperaceae, common in swampy land. It has spikes resembling tufts of cotton, and the cottony substance has been used for stuffing pillows, making candle-wicks, etc. COTTON-RAT (Sigmodon hispidus), a rodent resembling the Norway rat, common in the cottonfields of the southern United States. COTTONSEED AND COTTONSEED-OIL, products from the cotton plant, of which there are several species. The best-known and most valuable are the Gossypium Barbadense, G. Herbaceum, and others. The seed has an irregular, oval form, and measures about one sixth by one third of an inch. As it comes from the cotton-gin, there clings to it a delicate linty fiber. An average of 22 pounds of short lint is ordinarily taken from a ton of seed. This product, called linters, brings from 6 to 7 cents a pound, and is used principally in the manufacture of cotton batting. The hulls of the seed are used as fuel for the engines which furnish the power for the mills extracting the oil. It is estimated generally that three to four bushels of seed will afford one bushel of hulls, while the average percentage of oil is put at 15 to 20 per cent, and sometimes as high as 25 per cent. The cotton plant has been known for hundreds of years, but no use was made of its products, except the fiber from the boll, until a very late period. It has been demonstrated that every part of the plant is valuable, and available in many ways. The fiber of the plant-stalk can be made into a coarse bagging of great strength; the root is susceptible of use in dyeing and pharmacy; the seeds are valuable in many ways besides the production of oil; and the oil is growing more and more valuable as its peculiar properties are developed. The utilization of cottonseed was attempted in 1770, and samples of oil were exhibited by the Moravian brotherhood in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. Before that time the seed had been regarded worthless, and the majority of planters allowed it to rot on the ground. Some few had discovered its nutritive qualities, and utilized it as food for their cattle, sheep and horses, although horses did not take to it as kindly as the other stock. By some it was fed raw, while others boiled it for their animals, but the great majority disposed of the accumulations of seed-piles by digging furrowtrenches and burying the refuse seeds in the rows, over which the next crop of cotton would be planted. For ages the seed was but a waste product and cumbered the premises. The use of cottonseed-meal as food for horses and other stock is increasing largely from year to year. In its composition it is similar to the flat beans which form so important an item of horsefeed in England. But it is a highly concentrated food, and great caution is necessary in its use. It is sprinkled on cut and dampened hay, straw or corn fodder, not more than half a pound of the meal at 926 COTTONWOOD FALLS-COUCH-GRASS first, increasing slowly until the amount is four pounds, or even more, per day, for a horse of ten hundred to eleven hundred pounds. Cottonseed-meal free from hulls contains about seven per cent of nitrogen. The hulls are especially rich in potash, the ashes of the hulls having 36 or more per cent of potash in them. Acid phosphate supplies from 10 to 18 per cent of phosphoric acid. A mixture of the phosphate, cottonseed and the ashes of the hulls, which are procured at the oilmills, or the hulls themselves in compost, would be a complete fertilizer for any crop. As watermelons do not require potash in larger quantity than the soil of South Carolina naturally contains, a mixture of the cotton-meal and the phosphate would make a good fertilizer for that crop. In 1875 the Society for Encouragement of Arts and Commerce offered a prize for the manufacture of cottonseed-oil on a commercial scale; in 1851 specimens of oil and cake were placed in the English exhibition; in 1852 cottonseed-oil was exported from Egypt to France; in 1820 a patent was granted in the United States on a process for extracting the oil from the seed; in 1834 the first attempts to extract oil as a merchantable product were made at Natchez, Mississippi; in 1855 L. Klapp produced a decorticating-machine which separated the hulls from the kernels, and since that time the production of oil has become an enormous industry. The seed, after being cleared of the adhering lint, is passed into a decorticating or hulling machine, in which the seed is cut open by knives of steel or chilled iron. A solid cylinder armed with the knives revolves within a second cylinder, also armed with knives, playing in opposition. Revolving wire screens separate the kernels from the hulls. The hulls are crushed between iron rollers, and are then ready for the pressing. The first oil product is thick and turbid, and has a deep brown-red color and a slimy sediment. Subsequent processes produce the following grades: Crude oil, summer yellow, suminer white, winter yellow and winter white. Cottonseed-oil consists chiefly of palmetin and olein. The elementary composition is given as,— The refined oil has been introduced largely into general use for various purposes, including its substitution, when highly refined, for olive-oil in table use. It is used largely as a substitute for lard, known as "cottolene," being cheaper, more delicate, preserving its sweetness longer and involving less risk of injury to health. It also is used in the manufacture of butterine. In the arts, cottonseed-oil stands midway between the drying and the non-drying oils. In its drying properties it is inferior to linseed-oil. It is used as an adulterant or as a substitute for various oils, such as linseed, sperm, lard, olive, almond, etc., also for treating leather, in dressing wool, as a lubricator, an illuminant, and in soap-making. It is stated officially that nine tenths of the salad-oil in use in the United States consists wholly of cottonseed-oil. In 1881-82 Cows fed with meal made from the cake show an improvement in the quantity and quality of milk, and beef is improved greatly; but for cows carrying young its free use is not deemed advisable, it being productive of miscarriage. In 1881, 150,000 barrels. of oil were exported, three quarters of which were shipped to France and Mediterranean ports. The home consumption is estimated at from forty thousand to sixty thousand barrels per annum. The value of the cake is put at about six million dollars annually. In 1889-90 the oil produced in the United States was valued at $12,386,305, and the lint, hulls and oil-cake at $11,860,509. COTTONWOOD FALLS, a city and the capital of Chase County, eastern central Kansas, 66 miles S.W. of Topeka, on the Cottonwood River, and on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé railroad. The vicinity is a forest and grain-raising district, and the river gives good power for flour and lumber mills. Population 1895, 780. COTTONWOOD SPRINGS, a popular health and pleasure resort of Chaffee County, central Colorado, about six miles S.W. of Buena Vista. It is noted for its medicinal springs and for its charming scenery. COTTONWOOD TREE. See POPLAR, Vol. XIX, p. 512. COTTON-WORM, a common name for the larva of an owlet-moth (Aletia argillacea). The depredations of this larva in some years cause an enormous financial loss to the cotton-growers of America. Full accounts of the worm are given in several government reports published in the United States. COTULLA, a town and the capital of La Salle County, southern Texas, 86 miles by rail S.S. W. of San Antonio, on the Nueces River, and on the International and Great Northern railroad. Industry, grazing. Population, 1,016. COUCH-GRASS (Triticum repens), a species of grass common in Europe and North America, known to farmers as a troublesome weed; it spreads over the field with great rapidity, and on account of its tenacity of life is eradicated with difficulty. The roots are sweet and mucilaginous, and are collected at Naples for feeding horses. COUCY, RENAUD, CHÂTELAIN DE, a court poet belonging to the north of France, who flourished in the latter part of the twelfth century. He became a Crusader; it is supposed that he accompanied Philippe Auguste and Richard Coeur de Lion to the Holy Land, probably in the service of Raoul Sieur de Coucy, with whom he often is confounded. His poems were songs of passion, distinguished for their ardor and animation. They are preserved in the Chansons du Châtelain de Courcy, by F. Michel, Paris. COUDERSPORT, a borough and the capital of Potter County, central northern Pennsylvania, 64 miles N. W. of Williamsport, on the Allegheny River, N.W. and on the Coudersport and Port Allegheny railroad. It has a tannery, a foundry and several mills. Population 1890, 1,530. COUES, ELLIOTT, an American naturalist; born in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, Sept. 2, 1842; graduated from Columbian University, Washington, District of Columbia, in 1861, and entered the United States army in 1862 as medical cadet, and from 1864 to 1881 was assistant surgeon. He was, in 1869, professor of comparative anatomy at Norwich University, Vermont, and in 1873 surgeon and naturalist in the United States Northern Boundary Commission. Subsequently he was colELLIOTT COUES. laborator at the Smithsonian Institution; secretary and naturalist to the United States geological and geographical survey of the territories; professor of anatomy in the National Medical College; and professor of biology in the Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College. wrote many papers on scientific subjects. His fame rests mainly on his work in the field of ornithology, and a number of volumes of value on this subject attest his labors. Among his publications are Key to North American Birds (1872-87); Field Ornithology (1874); Birds of the Colorado Valley (1879); New England Bird Life (1881); The Damon of Darwin (1885); etc. Professor Coues made a study of theosophy, joined the Theosophical Society, and until Mme. Blavatsky's death in 1891 was an aggressive skeptic of her supernatural pretensions. He COULANGES, NUMA DENIS FUSTEL DE, a French essayist; born in Paris, March 18, 1830. He became a professor of history in the University of Strasburg in 1859, and in 1879 a professor at the Sorbonne. His published essays are principally on historical subjects. His history of serfdom in France, Recherches sur Quelques Problèmes d' Histoire, is the best authority on the subject extant, and its discussions throughout are founded on original sources. COULDOCK, CHARLES WALTER, an English actor; born in London, England, in 1815; first appeared on the stage in 1835, and came to this country in 1849. He supported Charles Kean and Macready, and played in the United States, creating | 927 the part of Dunstan Kirk in Hazel Kirk. In his eightieth year he was an active participant in stage representations, and admired greatly in old men's parts. COULTER, JOHN MERLE, an American botanist and university president; born in Ningpo, China, Nov. 20, 1851, of American parentage; graduated from Hanover College, Indiana, where, after spending two years with the Hayden government survey, he became professor of natural science. In 1879 he went to Wabash College as professor of biology, and in 1891 was elected president of Indiana University, from which he had received the doctorate of laws. From 1893 to 1896 he was president of Lake Forest University, and in the latter year went to the University of Chicago as head professor of botany. He has written many lectures on educational topics, in addition to numerous botanical publications, among which are Synopsis of the Flora of Colorado (with Prof. J. C. Porter); Manual of Rocky Mountain Botany; Handbook of Plant Dissection; Manual of the Botany of Western Texas; and Gray's Manual of Botany (6th ed.). He was the founder (1875) of the Botanical Gazette. The botanical subjects in these Supplements were. prepared under the editorship of Professor Coulter. COUNCIL BLUFFS, a city of southwestern Iowa and capital of Pottawattamie County. The city was incorporated in 1853 and is now the largest city. in the western part of the state. It contains a fine courthouse and other county buildings, a Roman Catholic seminary, a high school, several graded schools, and a state institution for deaf mutes, founded in 1855. Two iron railway and wagon bridges, each about a mile in length, span the Missouri and connect the city with Omaha. Its manufactories produce iron, paper, agricultural implements, machinery, carriages, etc., and it has an extensive wholesale trade. Population 1880, 18,063; 1890, 21,388. The population, including the suburbs, is estimated at over 40,000. See COUNCIL BLUFFS, Vol. VI, p. 512. COUNCIL GROVE, the capital of Morris County, eastern central Kansas, 51 miles S. W. of Topeka, located on the Neosho River, and on the Missouri Pacific and the Missouri, Kansas and Texas railroads, 24 miles N.W. of Emporia. It is one of the oldest towns in the state, and was named from the grove where former Indian councils were held by the pioneer settlers. It has flour-mills, broom factories, canning factories, etc. It is a large shipping-point for grain and cattle. Population 1895. 2,145. COUNCILMAN, WILLIAM THOMAS, an American physician; born Jan. 2, 1854, in Pikesville, Maryland; educated at the University of Maryland, and became professor of pathological anatomy in Harvard Medical College (1893). He wrote numerous works, including A Study of Inflammation (1879); On Fibrous Tubercle (in German, 1881); On the Etiology of Malaria (1884); Syphilis of the Lungs (1890); etc. COUNCIL OF THE INDIES was created by King Ferdinand in 1511, for the regulation of all Spanish colonial affairs. Bishop Fonseca (q.v., in these Supplements) was its first chief, and exercised great influence over its members, opposing Colum 928 COUNTERFEITING-COUNTER-IRRITANT bus, Cortes and others. The powers of the council became much enlarged in the time of Charles V, until its powers extended over all branches of colonial administration. It could nominate and remove viceroys and governors and ecclesiastical functionaries, enacted and approved all laws relating to the colonies, appointed the audiences which were the supreme courts in all criminal cases, and had control over all affairs relating to the Indians. Its seat was removed to Madrid after the first few years of its existence, and it represented the crown in all affairs relating to America and the Indies, and was subject only to the sovereign. of any coin or bars in resemblance or similitude of the gold or silver coins current. It also provides against the bringing into the United States of any such counterfeit money. The maximum penalty is $5,000 fine and ten years' imprisonment. Section 5458 provides against the counterfeiting of the minor coins; one, two, three and five cent pieces are additionally protected by section 5462, the penalty on conviction being a fine of not more than $1,000 and imprisonment for not more than five years. Section 5463 prohibits the counterfeiting of postal money-orders; 5464 covers the counterfeiting of postage stamps, and 5465 protects foreign stamps. Counterfeiting any key suited to any lock adopted by the post-office department subjects the offender to imprisonment at hard labor for a period of not more than ten years. The statutes also provide that any person who makes, aids in making, or causes to be made, or has in his possession with fraudulent intent, or permits to be used, any die, hub or mold of any substance whatever, in likeness of any die, hub or mold, used for coining United States coins, shall be fined not more than $5,000, or imprisoned at hard labor for not more than ten years, or both. In the case of foreign coins, the fine is $2,000 and the imprisonment five years, or both. All counterfeits and implements are confiscated by the government, and officers, when authorized by United States judges or commissioners, may enter any place, in the daytime only, to search for the same. For the purpose of keeping the counterfeiting of money as much in check as possible, the ter ritory of the United States is divided into ten districts, and experienced secret-service officers are constantly engaged in ferreting out counterfeiters and suppressing the business. Congress provides for the support of the service by annual appropriations, which are expended under the direction of the Secretary of the Treasury. The South and West are the sections most infested with counterfeiters, and much more work is done in counterfeiting coin than bank or treasury notes. The vigorous crusade of the government officials in recent years has done much to stamp out this nefarious business, and but little counterfeiting is now done in the United States. COUNTERFEITING is the act of imitating or copying anything with the intent of fraudulently passing off the copy as original and genuine. Under the provisions of the Revised Statutes of the United States many illegal acts are classed as counterfeiting. Counterfeiting the signature of any person to obtain. the approval, allowance or payment of a claim against the government, when done by a person in the military or naval service of the United States, subjects the convicted person to such punishment as a court-martial may fix. Counterfeiting any instrument in writing concerning lands, mines or minerals within the state of California is also made a felony, punishable by imprisonment for not less than three years or more than ten years, and a maximum fine of $10,000, or both. It is also made an offense to counterfeit, alter or reuse the revenue stamps designed to be placed on packages of fermented liquor or wine made in imitation of sparkling wine or champagne, as well as stamps for use on proprietary medicines. Sections 5414-5416 provide that every person who, with intent to defraud, falsely makes, forges or counterfeits any obligation or security of the United States shall be punished by a fine of not more than $5,000, and imprisoned at hard labor for not more than 15 years; counterfeiting the circulating notes used by any banking association, a penalty of from 5 to 15 years' imprisonment and a maximum fine of $1,000; counterfeiting letters patent, a maximum fine of $5,000 and imprisonment not to exceed 10 years. The counterfeiting of any certificate of entry required by any officer of the customs is punishable by a fine of not more than $10,000 and imprisonment for not more than three COUNTER-IRRITANT, a substance used to years. To counterfeit any bid, proposal, guaranty, produce local inflammation or congestion upon the official bond, public record, affidavit or other writing, surface of the body, for the purpose of relieving some for the purpose of defrauding the United States, sub- internal inflammation or congestion. It is generally jects the convicted person to a fine of not less than applied to a part of the surface at some distance $1,000 and imprisonment for not more than ten from the diseased organ. The counter-irritant causes years, or both. The seal or signature of an official the blood to flow in increased quantities to the part of the United States is protected from being coun- to which it is applied, which results in lessening the terfeited by the provisions of section 5419, which flow of blood through the diseased part, thus reimposes a penalty of from $500 to $5,000 fine and ducing its congestion or inflammation. Counternot more than five years' imprisonment. Other sub- irritants that simply redden the skin are called rubejects of counterfeiting are military bounty land-war- facients, as mustard, red pepper, turpentine; those rants, power of attorney, order, certificate or receipt, that blister, epispastics, as cantharides, ammonia, and protection is also given to ship's papers, custom-croton-oil; and those that actually destroy the tishouse documents, naturalization papers and other papers pertaining to the naturalization of aliens, the penalties being very heavy. The coin of the United States and foreign countries is protected under section 5457, which provides against the counterfeiting sues with which they come in contact, caustics, as silver nitrate, caustic potash, caustic soda, etc. The cautery, in the form of a red-hot iron, or a wire heated by passing through it a current of electricity, is also used. COUNTY COUNCILS-COURTHOPE COUNTY COUNCILS, a system of local government established in England and Wales by the Local Government Act of 1888, by which all duties relating to strictly local matters that were formerly performed by the justices in quarter sessions were transferred to the county councils, which were brought into existence by the act. For the purpose of the establishment of these councils, what are termed administrative counties were formed. The powers and duties of the councils refer to county finance, rating and assessment, county buildings, bridges, lunatic asylums, reformatories, registration and polling of Parliamentary electors, cattle diseases, the appointment of coroners, the maintenance of highways, preventing the pollution of rivers, and many other matters of minor importance. The police is under the joint management of the councils and the courts of quarter sessions. In regard to finances, the councils have the power of levying county and other rates, and they receive a share in certain licenses collected by the imperial government, and also a proportion of the probate duties. The most interesting of all the councils is the London county council. London is an administrative county, covering an area of 121 square miles; and has absorbed, so far as ratable value is concerned, about seven eighths of Middlesex, about two thirds of Surrey and about one third of Kent counties. In it the city of London is an electoral division. The administrative county of London includes within its limits the county of the city of London and the county of London—that is, the metropolis outside the city of London proper-the two latter being counties for such non-administrative purposes only as quarter sessions, justices, etc. Such matters as require the consideration of both the administrative and non-administrative county are referred to the "standing joint committee" of the London county council and the London quarter sessions. In that the administrative county of London has no jurisdiction over the police, it differs from other county councils. The council comprises a chairman, 19 aldermen and 118 councilors-in all, 138. The term of office for each alderman is six years, and nine or ten retire every three years. The councilors are elected for three years. The functions of these two classes of members are the same except as to term of service. The councilors are elected directly by the rate-payers; the councilors elect the aldermen. Among some of the more important works accomplished by the council are the clearing of large, unhealthy areas and rebuilding thereon suitable artisan houses. The council has established a model lodging-house, capable of accommodating 324 men, located at Parker Street, Drury Lane. The most important work has been the Thames tunnel at Blackwell (see BINNIE, ALEXANDER R., in these Supplements). The free ferry at Woolwich and the rebuilding of the Vauxhall bridge are other improvements undertaken by the council. See also LOCAL GOVERNMENT, ENGLAND AND LONDON, in these Supplements. COUPLE, the name given in statics to a pair of equal forces acting on the same body in opposite and parallel directions. The effect of a couple is to 929 rotate the body about a certain definite line (the axis) perpendicular to the plane in which the forces constituting the couple lie. COURBET, GUSTAVE, a French painter; born at Ornans, in Franche-Comté; died at Vevay, Switzerland, Dec. 31, 1877. The son of well-to-do farmers in the Jura region, he manifested early dispositions toward art; he received his education at Besançon, and when 201 years old, was sent to Paris to study law. But he abandoned everything for painting. He soon GUSTAVE COURBET. showed himself refractory to the influence of any of the leading teachers of his time, and struck boldly forward on the road toward realism, open-air art and impressionism. His first attempts to present his views of nature as he saw it, with an exuberance of light-and-shade effects unknown up to his day, were mockingly received, and in 1855, at the time of the first Paris exposition, he had to build his own exhibitionrooms close to the main entrance to the world's fair grounds. He was quite well known already, and admired by many, but his fame was of slow growth, and his rather boisterous ways of advertising himself were a hindrance to a deserved recognition. A bitter enemy of the second empire, he was not even satisfied with the republic of 1870, but joined the Paris Commune, in hopes of helping the triumph of socialism. In a foolish moment he urged the pulling down of the Colonne Vendôme. His participation in this act of vandalism caused him to be sentenced to prison and a heavy fine, the amount of which was used to rebuild the column, every fragment of which was recovered. His recognition as one of the masters of modern landscape-painting is not discussed any longer. Two of his masterpieces adorn the National Museum of the Luxembourg, and the influence of his truthful, vivid and intensely original representation of nature is strongly felt among the present generation of landscape-painters. A list of his more prominent works include After Dinner at Ornana (1849); The Interment at Ornans (1850); The Stone-Breakers (1851); Woman with a Parrot, and Deer at the Brook of Plaisirs-Fontaine, Doubs (1866); The Charity Beggar; Deer, Springtime (1868); The Stag-Whoop; Siesta in the Haying Season (1869); The Stormy Sea; The Beach at Etretat After a Storm (1870). Among his works that have been purchased and come to the United States are La Curée; Rocks on the Coast; Woman with a Parrot; Young Woman of the Seine; and Doe Run Down in the Snow. COURG OR CURG, a province of south India. See COORG, Vol. VI, p. 341. COURLAN OR LIMPKIN, the common names of the rail-like birds of the family ARAMIDÆ; q.v., in these Supplements. COURTHOPE, WILLIAM JOHN, an English author; born in 1842 at Malling Vicarage, near Lewes, Sussex, England; educated at Harrow School and at |