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1870, and became honorary canon of Newcastle in 1882. In 1884 he was elected professor of ecclesiastical history in Cambridge University, and next year became canon residentiary of Worcester Cathedral. He edited the English Historical Review from 1886, and received the degree of LL.D. from Harvard. He was the author of a useful series of historical manuals, etc., including History of Rome (1875); The Age of Elizabeth (1876); The Tudors and the Reformation (1876); A History of the Papacy During the Reformation (1882); and Cardinal Wolsey (1888). CREMATION, the burning of the dead as a substitute for their burial. There has been a steady increase of interest in cremation in the United States since the first regular crematory went into operation in 1885. The United States Cremation Company of New York was among the first in the field. Its cinerator was designed by C. J. Eames and Dr. M. L. Davis. The retort for corpses is built of fire-brick. The body is placed in a chamber immediately over the fuel-chamber, which is heated through holes. The draft is so arranged, however, that no flames reach the body. The volatile matter runs out through highly heated chambers, and is dissipated in the atmosphere. The fuel used is coal. A temperature of 2000° to 2500° F. is maintained, and about two hours are required for the cremation of a corpse.

Dr. Davis has designed the cinerators for several other crematories, and has improved the original design. That at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, has double retorts and furnaces. The materials used are firebrick, tiles of fire-clay, asbestos, sand and iron. The retorts are so set in the center of each furnace that the flames are made to pass around them three times. The doors are all packed air-tight with asbestos. The volatile matter from the bodies is carried off through flues, in which a temperature of 2500° F. is maintained. Forty-five to ninety minutes are required for the incineration of a body.

In Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, there has been constructed a combined crematory and columbarium, with one hundred niches for urns, to contain the ashes of the dead. The building is very tastefully and expensively designed and decorated. At the Pittsburg crematory the Davis cinerator is used, with natural gas as fuel. Its incinerating capacity is one hour to an hour and a quarter. The Buffalo, New York, crematory makes use of an Italian form of cinerator, designed by Engineer Joseph Venino, being the same used at Milan, Padua and Udine, in Italy, and in Troy, New York. Other United States crematories are located at Detroit, San Francisco, Philadelphia, Waterville (New York), etc., to the number of about twenty. See CREMATION, Vol. VI, p. 565.

C. H. COCHRANE.

CREMIEUX, ISAAC ADOLPHE, a French statesman; born at Nîmes, France, in 1796; became a lawyer in Paris in 1830. In 1842 he entered the Chamber of Deputies and voted with the Extreme Left. He became Minister of Justice in the provisional government in February, 1848, but retired in June. During the empire he held no public office, but when the republic was proclaimed he be

came again Minister of Justice, and was associated with Gambetta in the Ministry of the National Defense. He was elected life Senator, Dec. 15, 1875, and died Feb. 10, 1880.

CRERAR, JOHN, a Chicago business man and philanthropist; born in New York City in 1827; died Oct. 19, 1889, and left $3,000,000 for charitable purposes, of which $2,000,000 was set apart for the founding of a free public library to bear his name. In 1895, after a long contest of the will had been defeated, the trustees of the library decided to devote it exclusively to works on the sciences.

CRESAP, MICHAEL, an Indian trader; born in Maryland in 1742. In 1774, at Wheeling, he led an attack on the Indians, who had become unruly, and defeated them, while another party barbarously destroyed the entire family of Logan, a friendly chieftain. Logan accused Cresap of the murder, in a speech that has become classic, but Cresap was not guilty. Commissioned captain of the militia of Virginia, he joined the Dunmore expedition, and returned to Maryland; from there he went to Ohio in the spring following, and penetrated the wilds of far western Virginia. Later he was commissioned captain of a company of Maryland riflemen, and went with his company to Massachusetts to join the American army. But when he arrived at his destination he was overcome by sickness, and died on his way homeward, in New York City, in 1775. His remains lie buried there, in Trinity churchyard, and a tombstone marks his grave.

CRESCENT, a decoration, sometimes called an order, in Turkey. According to ancient legend, when Philip of Macedon was besieging Byzantium, he began secretly to undermine the walls. But the light of a crescent moon discovered his design. The Byzantines, in gratitude, adopted the crescent as the emblem of state. In 1259, Sultan Othman, the founder of the Ottoman dynasty, adopted the crescent as his symbol, on account of a remarkable vision or dream. It has been the emblem of the sultanate ever since. In 1799, after the battle of Aboukir, the sultan, Selim III, testified his gratitude to Nelson by sending him a crescent richly adorned with diamonds. It was not intended as an order, but Nelson wore it on his coat; and Selim, flattered by the value attached to his gift, resolved that a similar decoration should be conferred on foreigners who had done service to the state. There was an old order of the Crescent instituted by Réné, Duke of Anjou, in 1464.

CRESCENT CITY, a city and county capital, on the southern side of Point St. George, in Del Norte County, northwestern California. Lumber is its greatest export. A lighthouse stands on this point, lat. 41° 44' 34" N., long. 124° 11' 22" W. Population 1890, 907.

CRESCENTINO, a town of north Italy, in the province of Novara, 22 miles N.E. of Turin, situated near the confluence of the Dora Baltea with the Po. It has manufactories of silk and woolens. Population, 6,300.

CRESCO, a railroad village, the capital of Howard County, northeastern Iowa, on the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul railroad, and on the Turkey

River, 40 miles N.E. of Charles City. It is a great shipping-point for wheat, and has foundries and other manufactories; also, a good union school and a Catholic parochial school. Population 1895,

2,529.

CRESOLS (C'H'O), a product of coal-tar distillation. There are three cresols, two solid and one liquid. They may be formed by treating toluene with sulphuric acid. The liquid cresol was discovered by Fairlie, and extracted from wood-tar by Duclos. It is a colorless liquid, with an odor like that of phenol, and boils at 189-190°. See also TAR, Vol. XXIII, p. 57.

CRESSES, a popular name given to a number of low, usually annual, plants, mostly members of the mustard family (Crucifera), common throughout the temperate zones, and characterized by the pungent taste of their stems and leaves, which, when young, are valued for salads. They are also used for certain medicinal purposes, chiefly as a diaphoretic. The English water-cress (Nasturtium officinale) and the American water-cress (Cardamine rotundifolia) are those best known and of chief economic importance. Lepidium sativum, the common garden cress, a native of Russia, has been widely introduced in the United States. It is used in the preparation of a remedy efficient in the prevention of scurvy. See also Cress and Nasturtium under HORTICULTURE, Vol. XII, pp. 281 and 285.

CRESSON, a post village and summer resort of Cambria County, southwestern central Pennsylvania, situated on the top of the Alleghany Mountains, three hundred feet above the sea. It is 11 miles by rail E. of Ebensburg, and its fine scenery, pure air and the reputation of its magnesia springs attract many visitors.

CRESTLINE, a city in Crawford County, northern central Ohio, 12 miles N.E. of Bucyrus, on the Pittsburg, Fort Wayne and Chicago railroad. The Pennsylvania railroad has repair-shops here; and among its industries are lock-works, furnace and stove factory, foundries, etc. Population 1890, 2,911. CRESTON, a city of southern Iowa, about two hundred miles W. of Burlington, on the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy railroad. It is an important trade center, and is the northern terminus of a railroad extending to St. Joseph, Missouri. It contains a variety of manufactories, including large wagon factories and car-shops. Population 1895, 6,630. CRESWELL, JOHN A. J., an American statesman; born in Port Deposit, Maryland, Nov. 18, 1828. He graduated from Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania, and was admitted to the bar in 1850; a member of the state legislature from 1860 to 1862, of Congress in 1863, and in the United States Senate in 1865. In 1869 President Grant made him Postmaster-General, which position he held till 1874. Mr. Creswell represented the United States before the Court of Commissioners of Alabama Claims. He died at Elkton, Maryland, Dec. 23, 1891. CRETACEOUS PERIOD. See GEOLOGY, Vol. X, p. 357

CRETE, a manufacturing city and railroad junction of Saline County, southeastern Nebraska, 21 miles S.W. of Lincoln, on the Big Blue River, and

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on the Burlington and Missouri River railroad. It is the seat of a theological seminary and Doane (Congregational) College. Population 1890, 2,310; of the precinct, 3,283.

CRÉTIN, JOSEPH, a Roman Catholic bishop; born in Lyons, France, in 1800; died in St. Paul, Minnesota, Feb. 27, 1857. He studied in his native diocese, and in 1839 was appointed vicar-general Dubuque, Iowa. From 1843 to 1849 he was at Prairie du Chien, among the Winnebagos, when he was appointed to the new see at St. Paul, Minnesota, where, later, he erected a hospital, an asylum and novitiate. Subsequently he established churches among several tribes of Indians, and erected a convent of the Benedictine order at St. Cloud, which has since grown into a great school and abbey. When he was appointed to Minnesota, there were in his diocese one log church and three priests. A few years later there were 29 churches and 20 priests, with a Catholic population of more than fifty thousand.

CRÉTINEAU-JOLY, JAQUES, a French historian; born at Fontenay-Vendée, Sept. 23, 1803. He studied theology in Paris, and became a supporter and defender of royalty and the church. He wrote a History of the Jesuits, in six volumes, which is his bestknown work (4th ed. 1856). His other publications include Histoire de la Vendée Militaire (1864); Histoire de Louis Philippe (1867); and Le Pope Clement XIV (1853). He died at Vincennes, Jan. 1, 1875. CRETINISM. See Vol. VI, pp. 572-574; and PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY, in these Supplements. CREVAUX, JULES NICHOLAS, a French explorer; born in Lorquin, Lorraine, April 1, 1847. He became assistant surgeon in the French navy in 1868, and surgeon five years later; was awarded the cross of the Legion of Honor in 1876 for his devotion to the fever patients on the Salut Islands. Subsequently he explored the Tumuc-Humac Mountains, and descended the Yaru to the Amazon. He afterward explored the Yapoura, the Pilaya and the Pilcomayo rivers. On April 24, 1882, while prosecuting his. explorations in the region of the Teyo, he was murdered by the Tapeti Indians.

CREVECŒUR, the name of a Dutch port in the province of North Brabant, southern Holland, on the left bank of the Meuse, 49 miles S. E. of the Hague. It figured prominently in the wars of the Dutch and Spaniards. Population, 2, 129.

CREVILLENTE, a town of southeastern Spain, in the province of Alicante, 21 miles S.W. of Alicante. It has a population of about 16,114, chiefly engaged in agricultural pursuits and weaving. CREWKERNE, a town in the southeast of Somersetshire, southern England, 15 miles S. E. of TaunIt lies in a wooded, fertile vale, not far from the river Parret, has a fine church, and a grammar school founded by John de Coombe in 1449, and some manufactures of sailcloth, sacking, dowlas and stockings. Population, 4,946.

ton.

CRICHTON-BROWNE, SIR JAMES, an English physician, son of Dr. W. A. F. Browne, her Majesty's commissioner in lunacy for Scotland; born at Edinburgh in 1840; was educated at Trinity College, Glenalmond, Perthshire, at the University of Edin

66

criminal, in its bearings on social questions and the eventual improvement or advancement of the race, is now one of the most serious considerations of thinkers and those who are necessarily engaged in the study of the criminal classes from a detective, preventive or scientific standpoint. The study of crime has indeed been advanced to the dignity of a science called criminology. Criminologists are inclined to believe that a criminal is a hereditary resultant; hence such an individual may be styled criminaloid, or with a criminal taint. Dr. S. A. K. Strahan holds that the criminal belongs actually to a decaying race, being in fact only one of the many signs of family decay, and is only found in families whose other members show signs of degeneration. Besides being hereditary, he thinks criminality is interchangeable with other degenerate conditions, such as idiocy, epilepsy, suicide, insanity, scrofula, etc.; and it is not certain, or it is a chance," whether the insanity or drunkenness, for instance, of the parent will appear as such in the child or be transferred in transmission to one or other of the alternate degenerate conditions. As to the treatment of the criminal, or criminaloid, for the purpose of effectually eradicating the stock from the human element, no system has been, or can be yet, heroically adopted. The time is not ready for the evident measures necessary. Herbert Spencer has declared that not only have artificial punishments failed to produce reformation, but they have in many cases increased criminality. Ruskin has said that reformation depends on the establishment of institutions for the active employment of the individuals while their criminality is still unripe. The present system, Dr. Strahan declares, has proved a disastrous failure. Short periods of punishment can have no effect, either curative or deterrent. Everything points in the direction of prolonged or indefinite confinement in industrial penitentiaries. It is certainly upon such lines that the treatment of the criminal will eventually have to proceed; but the question arises, if the criminaloid is a hereditary resultant, he cannot be regarded as responsible; therefore his treatment should not be conducted upon the idea of inflicting punishment, but on the principle of isolation and the securing the prevention, through him, of the further transmission and continuity of the taint that has developed in his hereditary line. The taint must be drained out of the stream of continuity-of hereditary forces-by simply securing, in such individual, an obliteration of such lineal tendency.

CRIMINALS, Identification of. While various systems have been in use from time immemorial, for the identification of persons charged with crime, it remained for Alphonse Bertillon of Paris to perfect, in 1882, a system that was adopted by the French government, affording a positive means of immediately recognizing and identifying a person who had ever, at any time, been examined according to the rules laid down in the code established by him. The measurements as established are applicable to individuals, tribes or races. The list embraces height; length and width of head; length of left middle and little fingers, forearm and foot, full

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stretch of arms; and length and breadth of right ear. All marks and scars are fully described and recorded, and exact position noted; all peculiarities of the eyes and hair are given. In defining a scar, its precise location is noted as being either on the right or left of the vertebral column, as well as above or below the plane of the seventh vertebra. For scars on the face the localities and measurements are reckoned from the nostrils, the bridge of the nose, the corners of the mouth, chin, cheek, eyebrows; on the breast, the median line, the nipples, the sternum, are taken as bases; for the arm, the measurements are reckoned from the shoulder, elbow, wrist; for the fingers, the phalanges and articulations. It was found that in the measurements of 130,000 individuals by the police in Paris, no two cases were alike, and it was very seldom that the same kind of scar or mark was on two different persons in the same position. In the practical working of the system, three divisions are made: tall, medium and short. This is designated as the first classification. Each of these classes is further subdivided under head-measurement, followed in turn by other classifications and divisions until the whole number is divided into groups of about ten persons each. As an example of the speed and accuracy with which a criminal can be identified when he refuses to give his name, it is necessary to take, first, his height, thereby locating him in one of the grand divisions, tall, medium, or short, and thereby locating the series of compartments or drawers where his recorded measurement and photograph are to be found. The measurement of the length of the head brings still nearer; the color of the eyes, the length of the outstretched arms, and the length of the foot will bring the searcher to the exact spot where the full description and pictures identify the culprit beyond a doubt. Two photographs are usually taken, one with a profile view, the second a three-quarter face.

The plan adopted by the police of the United States is regarded as an improvement and simplification of the methods as given in the foregoing description. The method in vogue for many years has been to take the height and weight; note the complexion; the color and any other peculiarity of the hair; the teeth, eyes, nose, etc. In the matter of the nose, care is taken to describe it as either regular, irregular, Roman, pug or Grecian.

scars

All

are located and described; birth-marks and India-ink marks, with all deformities, and evidences of accidents are recorded. The measurements can be taken by one policeman, but for rapid work two are usually required,—one for the measuring and one for the recording. The instruments used are calipers, compasses and graduated rules, which, although inexpensive, are so exact that the diameters of the head and the length of the fingers can be given to within one millimeter. The entire system of measurement has recently been exhaustively treated in Alphonse Bertillon's Signaletic Instructions (1896), edited by Maj. R. W. McClaughry, the well-known penologist.

CRINOIDEA. See ECHINODERMATA, Vol. VII, p. 635.

CRIPPLE CREEK, perhaps the most remark.

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able of all the recent mining towns of the West, is situated on the southwesterly slope of the foothills of Pike's Peak, in El Paso County, and about 30 miles W.S.W. from Colorado Springs. It has two railroads, the Midland Terminal and the Florence and Cripple Creek. Gold was first discovered here about 1885 or 1886; but although the first "prospects" were located upon ground which has since been demonstrated to be of vast richness, they were not, at that time, prosecuted far enough to demonstrate their worth. The first large strike occurred in 1891, and in 1896 a very large surrounding area of territory has been turned into the production of gold upon a profitable scale. Cripple Creek has been to gold-production what Leadville was to the silver-mining industry. They both marked new departures, or virtually new eras, in the mining of the respective metals, inasmuch as they demonstrated that metals lay hidden in and richly impregnated hitherto unsuspected rock-formations; those at Leadville being the lead carbonates, while at Cripple Creek the gold was found in conjunction with dikes ascending through fissures in the earlier volcanic formation. Cripple Creek has had its vicissitudes. In 1894 the town was the scene of great turmoil and uproar on account of the miners' strike, which paralyzed all industry, caused the destruction of much property and the loss of many lives, and involved the whole state and surrounding country. This trouble being finally settled, the town entered upon a new era of growth. New mines were opened and older ones developed; the influx of population was unprecedented, and, notwithstanding a fire during the early part of 1896, which virtually wiped the town out of existence, it soon had all the adjuncts of modern life and a population variously estimated at from 10,000 to 25,000, and an increasing output of gold. In 1895 the production exceeded $8,000,000. CRISAFULLI, HENRI, a French dramatist; born at Naples in 1827; studied in Paris at the College of Charlemagne and at the Massin Institute. In collaboration with M. Édouard Devicque, he produced a large number of dramas, including Cæsar Borgia (1855); Marie Stuart (1856); Les Deux Faubouriens (1857); Giroflé Girofla (1858); and afterward, independently, or with others, Le Démon du Jeu (1863); M. et Mme. Fernel (1864); Le Passé de M. Jouanne (1865); Les Loups et les Agneaux (1868); Les Postillions de Fougerolles (1873); L'Idole (1875); Lord Harrington (1879); Le Bonnet le Coton (1881); Une Perle (1882); etc. With Gustave Aimard he has published Les Invisibles de Paris, a series of romances (1867).

CHARLES F. CRISP.

CRISP, CHARLES FREDERICK, an American statesman; born in Sheffield, England, Jan. 20, 1845. His parents were Americans temporarily sojourning in England, and returned to this country in 1846. They settled in Georgia, where the boy received

the ordinary common-school education. In 1861 he entered the Confederate service; rose to the rank of lieutenant, and in May, 1864, was captured by the Federal forces. At the close of the war he began the study of law, and was admitted to the bar. In 1872 he was given the position of attorney-general of the southwestern judicial district of Georgia, and served until 1877, when he was appointed judge of the superior court. Later he was elected by the general assembly to the same office, and re-elected in 1880 for a term of four years. In 1882 he became a candidate for Congress and was elected. Dec. 8, 1892, Mr. Crisp was elected Speaker of the Fifty-second Congress, and of the Fifty-third Congress in 1893. He died in Atlanta, Georgia, Oct. 23, 1896.

CRISPI, FRANCESCO, an Italian statesman; born in Sicily, Oct. 4, 1819; took a leading part in the Palermo insurrection of 1848, and, after its failure, went into exile. In 185960 he organized another revolution, landed at Palermo with Garibaldi, and fought for the expulsion of the Bourbons and the annexation of Sicily. He became a member of the provisional government. In 1861 he was elected to the first Parliament of united Italy, and in 1876 became president of the Chamber of Deputies. He was for several years Premier of Italy, but resigned early in 1891, resuming the office in 1894. Was succeeded by Marquis di Rudini in March, 1896.

FRANCESCO CRISPI.

CRITICISM, HIGHER, a name given to that criticism of books, and especially of the Bible, which is concerned with their origin, form and value. It distinguished from the lower criticism, which is concerned with their text.

is

Traces of the higher criticism of the Bible are found during all the Christian centuries. But systematic work in this field is exclusively modern. It began with Jean Astruc, in his book entitled Conjectures Concerning the Original Memoirs Used by Moses in Composing the Book of Genesis, which appeared at Brussels in 1753. This book was intended as a defense of the Pentateuch against Spinoza. Astruc pointed to the fact that the names Jehovah and Elohim are used in alternate passages in the early chapters of Genesis, and that if the passages containing either of these names be put together, they form a connected narrative. He therefore inferred that Moses made use of two earlier documents, in one of which God was uniformly called Jehovah, and in the other Elohim. The theory of Astruc excited great attention, and Eichhorn, who wrote thirty years later, affirmed that the sections of Genesis in which the names of Jehovah and Elohim, respectively, are used are also characterized by other differences of style. Eichhorn gave to this method of study the name of higher criticism, a designation which it has borne ever since.

The conjectures of Astruc and Eichhorn are