called "the document theory." Still later, De Wette published his "supplement theory"; and still later, Ewald his "crystallization theory." Without defining these later theories, it may be sufficient to say that the general tendency of the critical labors which they represent was to extend the document theory to a larger number of Biblical books, to find a larger number of original documents, and to analyze the early books of the Bible more minutely. In our own times the movement of the higher criticism has reached what is called the "Grafian phase," represented by Graf, by Kuenen, by Wellhausen, and by many others. The results presented by this, the now reigning school of higher critics, are stated thus by Zenas, in his excellent book on the higher criticism:

"The credible recorded history of Israel dates from the days of Samuel. With this prophet begins, also, the crystallization of the religion of Israel into its present form. The process thus begun continues through centuries. The Hexateuch is a composite work, whose origin and history may be traced in four distinct stages: 1. A writer designated as J, Jahvist, or Jehovist, or Judean prophetic historian, composed a history of the people of Israel about 800 B.C. 2. A writer designated as E, Elohist, or Ephraemite prophetic historian, wrote a similar work some fifty years later, or about 750 B.C. These two were used separately for a time, but were fused together into JE by a redactor, at the end of the seventh century. 3. A writer of a different character wrote a book constituting the main portion of our present Deuteronomy during the reign of Josiah, or a short time before 621 B.C. This writer is designated as D. To this work were added an introduction and appendix, and with those accretions it was united with JE by a second redactor, constituting JED. 4. Contemporaneously with Ezekiel the ritual law began to be reduced to writing. It first appeared in three parallel forms. These were codified by Ezra not much earlier or later than 444 B.C., and between that date and 280 B.C. it was joined with JED by a final redactor. This general view, always allowing modifications in final details, has been accepted by a large number of European and American scholars, and may be said to be the dominant view at the present time. In America these views have been accepted by C. H. Toy, C. A. Briggs, H. P. Smith and B. W. Bacon."

Many advocates of this view on the continent of Europe have been aided to accept them by preconceptions against the supernatural in the Bible and in the religious history of the world; but in England and America this has not usually been the case. No objection can be made 'to the higher criticism as a method of study in any field of literature; but the higher criticism of the Bible is to be judged not only by the method of those who pursue it, but also by the conclusions they reach. The unsettling of early Biblical history is so extensive, and the analysis of the Hexateuch presented to us by the higher critics so minute and teasing, that these results can be accepted only when accompanied by overwhelming proofs. But the arguments submitted to us

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seem often unreal, and if such arguments were applied to the mixed plays of Shakespeare, they would not lead us to a conviction of the value of the dramatist's works.

The literature of the subject is almost boundless, but a fair and complete discussion will be found in The Elements of the Higher Criticism, by A. C. Zenas, New York. F. JOHNSON.

CRITTENDEN, GEORGE BIBB, an American general; born in Russellville, Kentucky, March 20, 1812. He served in the Texan revolution of 1835 and in the Mexican War, being one of the first to enter the City of Mexico. On the outbreak of the Civil War he resigned his commission as lieutenantcolonel in the United States army, and entered the Confederate service. He was commissioned brigadier-general, and speedily promoted to major-general. An unsuccessful attack by his forces on the Union troops at Fishing Creek led to his severe censure, and soon afterward he resigned his commission. After the war he resided in Frankfort, Kentucky, and was state librarian from 1867 to 1871. He died in Danville, Kentucky, Nov. 27, 1880.

CRITTENDEN, JOHN JORDAN, an American statesman; born near Versailles, Woodford County, Kentucky, Sept. 10, 1787. His father, John Crittenden, a native of Virginia, settled in Kentucky after the Revolutionary War, in which he served as major. The son was graduated at William and Mary College in 1807, practiced law, in 1809 was appointed attorney-general of the territory of Illinois, and in 1811 he was elected to the Kentucky legislature. In 1817 he was elected to the United States Senate, where he obtained a reputation by an appeal in behalf of General Arthur St. Clair's petition for payment of the arrears due him. In 1819 he settled in Frankfort, Kentucky, was a conspicuous member of the Old Court party, and aided in settling the boundary between Kentucky and Tennessee. In 1827 he was made attorneygeneral of Kentucky, and in 1828 was appointed a judge of the supreme court, but was not confirmed. In 1834 he was made secretary of state for Kentucky, and in 1835 was elected to the United States Senate, where he supported Henry Clay's measures. He was appointed Attorney-General in the Cabinet of President Harrison, whom he had first met during an expedition against Canada in 1813.

After Henry Clay's resignation in 1842, he was appointed to fill his place, and in the next year was elected for a full term. He resisted the annexation of Texas and supported the war with Mexico. In 1848 he became governor of Kentucky, and in 1850 was made Attorney-General in Fillmore's Cabinet. In 1855 he again served in the United States Senate, and opposed the pro-slavery policy of Pierce and Buchanan. To avert the calamity of secession, Mr. Crittenden presented, in 1860, resolutions proposing constitutional amendments to the states, which were known as the "Crittenden Compromise," but, although supported by numerous petitions, they were not accepted. In 1861 John C. Breckenridge succeeded him in the Senate, but he was elected to the House of Representatives in that year, and

nearly defunct Queen's College, in New Brunswick, New Jersey, which developed into Rutgers College. In 1801 he was made rector of New Brunswick, and was elected bishop of New Jersey in 1815. He received the degree of doctor of theology from Columbia College in 1811. He died in New Brunswick, July 30, 1832.

CROFFUT, WILLIAM AUGUSTUS, an American editor and author; born at Redding, Connecticut, Jan. 29, 1835, and in 1861 enlisted as a private in the United States army, attaining the rank of corporal. After the war he resumed the journalistic work in which he had previously been engaged, and which he was able to prosecute at times during his experience in the Civil War. He had editorial charge of journals in the East and West, including some of the leading dailies of New York City, Chicago and Washington, District of Columbia. He trav-❘ eled extensively in Europe and in Asia, Mexico, Cuba and Yucatan, and wrote syndicate articles and letters of his experiences. From 1888 until 1891 he was executive officer of the United States Geological Survey, and afterward had editorial charge of the bureau. With John M. Morris he published The Military and Civil History of Connecticut During the War of 1861-65 (1868); and is the author of A Helping Hand (1868); Bourbon Ballads, a series of political rhymes (1880); Deseret, an opera, with music by Dudley Buck, the motive for the work being drawn from life among the Mormons (1881); A Midsummer Lark, a humorous account of a tour in Europe (1882); The Vanderbilts and the Story of Their Fortune (1886); Folks Next Door (1892); and two volumes of Poems. He was invited to contribute an original ode on the opening of the Columbian Exposition at Chicago, May 1, 1893.

CROFTERS are small farmers in the Highlands of Scotland. Their grievances can be traced to the poverty of their landlords, and the advantage the latter took of the modern sporting craze, which has drawn rich bankers and others to seek large gamepreserves, for which they gave enormous rents. Another cause that operated was the rackrenting of these crofters, which was especially apparent on the Duke of Argyll's estate. Before the game-preserves, deer-forests, salmon-fishing, and grouse-moors became a mine of wealth to the impoverished Highland lairds, the only means of revenue were the rents of the crofters, and these were stretched to the utmost and kept up by every means, even after the depression had fairly set in. The high rents and reduced prices operating in conjunction with the results of the letting of the game to southern millionaires and sheep-farmers, leading to the wholesale eviction of hereditary tenants, brought the discontent and oppression to a crisis, and before the public as a political matter. A royal commission resulted in the passage of the act of 1886 known as the Crofter's Holdings Act.

There are two classes of Highland crofters. The first includes those who occupy arable land in separate tenancy and mountain pasture in joint tenancy; and the second, those who occupy land in separate tenancy only. Some reminiscences of a primitive community seem to have been preserved in their

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common rights, privileges and, obligations. This system is a survival, by a peculiar transference, of a once common system of tenure in Scotland. The greater number of tenants are descendants of subtenants of the original taskmen of such former period, who, with the disappearance of the taskmen, came into direct relations with the lairds. The township crofter has always been regarded as a tenant at will, in the eyes of the law, except in cases of special contract.

The township crofters, however, have not been able to secure total support from their holdings, and are dependent on various outside sources for securing complete means of subsistence. The chief resource of this kind is fishing.

The independent crofters are a laborious class, and have received great sympathy. They have been recruited from the working-classes in the adjoining counties, and from the number of broken townships dispersed by the formation of sheepfarms. They are a more progressive class than the township crofters, rely more upon their own efforts, and are cultivators principally. Their grievances have been remedied by the act of 1886.

The cottars are occupiers of dwellings and of small pieces of ground, which they hold from the farmer, the township, the individual crofter; sometimes they are squatters merely, paying no rent, and acknowledging authority from no one. They eke out their existence by fishing and other means. Their claims are recognized also by the act of 1886.

The whole trouble of the crofters was aired thoroughly in connection with the disturbance in the Lewis Island, in the Hebrides, which, during the latter part of 1887, was the scene of a deer-raid, forcible seizure of lands, and collisions with military and police authorities. One half of the island had been leased to strangers as a deer-forest, and one half of the remainder converted into sheep-farms. Overcrowding was the consequence. The crofters and cottars had besides to pay twenty or thirty shillings for land that was so poor that if it had been on the mainland, in an agricultural county, it would have gone back into a state of nature. The herring-fishing, which formerly had enabled the crofters to pay the rent, failed, and the renters were destitute. The commissioners found the people suffering from lack of food, and even threatened with starvation. The raiders were tried at Edinburgh, and sentences passed upon sixteen prisoners, concerned in the disturbances, of from nine to fifteen months' imprisonment. The commissioners appointed by the act reduced the rents on the island of Sanday nearly 49 per cent, and canceled 81 per cent of the arrears. On other estates the reductions were from 30 to 60 per cent, and the arrears were wiped out to the extent of from 40 to 80 per cent. On the estates of the Duke of Argyll the rents were reduced largely, also. See SCOTLAND, Vol. XXI, p. 531; also Vol. XXII, SKYE, p. 127, and SUTHERLAND, P1 726. R. C. AULD.

CROFTON, SIR WALTER FREDERICK, an English prison reformer; born in 1815. In 1833 he entered the Royal Artillery, retiring in 1844 as

Marquis of Ripon, in which capacity he framed and carried three budgets. In 1883 he succeeded Sir Edward Malet at Cairo, with the status of minister. He was created a peer in 1892, with the title of Baron Cromer. He is also a G.C.M.G., a K.C.B., a K.C.S.I., and a C.I.E.

CROMWELL, RICHARD, a son of Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of England; born at Huntingdon, Oct. 4, 1626. He studied law at Lincoln's When Oliver attained the dignity of Lord Protector, he called his son from the obscurity of a country house to have him elected to Parliament for the counties of Monmouth and Southampton, appointed him First Lord of Trade and Navigation, and made him chancellor of Oxford and a Privy Councillor. In none of these capacities did Richard Cromwell exhibit any aptitude; and his failure as Protector, to which high office he succeeeded in September, 1658, on the death of his father, was still more conspicuous. The result was his demission, a little more than seven months after he had assumed the headship of the commonwealth. retired to Hampton Court, whence Parliamentary stinginess and pressing creditors soon drove him. to the Continent, where he resided for twenty years. At length returning to England, he had a house provided for him at Cheshunt, near London, where he resided in strict privacy until his death, which occurred July 12, 1712. He lacked the character

and ambition of his father.

He

CRONHOLM, ABRAHAM PETER, a Swedish historian; born at Landskrona, Oct. 22, 1809. From 1849 to 1855 he was professor of history at Lund. After his retirement from that post he devoted himself exclusively to literature. He published a large number of valuable historical works, including Memorials of the Ancient North (1835); Political History of Scania (1846-51); History of the Reign of Gustavus Adolphus (1857-72); and an unfinished History of the Thirty Years' War (1876-80). He died at Stockholm, May 27, 1879.

CRONWRIGHT-SCHREINER, OLIVE, better known as Olive Schreiner, the South African novelist; born about 1863, in Cape Town, the daughter of a Lutheran clergyman. When she was twenty years of age she went to London with the manuscript of a novel, The Story of an African Farm, which had the good fortune of receiving the approval of George Meredith. The story was published under the pseudonym of "Ralph Iron," and was a great success. It ran through many editions. The book dealt with the spiritual liberation of an idealist temperament from the ultra-Calvinism of the Dutch profession. In 1891 she published Dreams, a collection of parables; and in 1893, Dream Life and Real Life. She was married Feb. 24, 1894, to Mr. Cronwright, a young colonist, upon which

OLIVE SCHREINER.

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occasion she chose to be known as Olive CronwrightSchreiner, Mr. Cronwright at the same time adopting his wife's name. In 1895 Mr. CronwrightSchreiner delivered a lecture at Kimberley, Griqualand, South Africa, entitled The Political Situation. This lecture has been, with the assistance of his wife, elaborated into a book, which the authors describe as dealing with "the retrogressive movement in South Africa, and the manner in which it may be stayed."

GENERAL CROOK.

CROOK, GEORGE, an American soldier; born near Dayton, Ohio, September 8, 1828. A graduate of the United States Military Academy, he entered upon active service with the Fourth Infantry in California in 1852. From 1852 to 1861 he participated in various expeditions against the Indians, during one of which he was wounded by an arrow. At the breaking out of the Civil War he became colonel of the Thirty-sixth Ohio Infantry, and subsequently commanded the Third Provisional Brigade in the West Virginia campaigns. In the summer of 1862 he was engaged in the Virginia and Maryland campaigns, and was brevetted lieutenant-colonel, United States army. July 1, 1863, he was transferred to the Second Cavalry division, and participated in the battles of Tullahoma and Chickamauga. In February, 1864, he was assigned to the command of the Kanawha district in western Virginia, and in the latter part of that year took part in Sheridan's celebrated Shenandoah campaign. In March, 1865, he was brevetted major-general, and was in command of the cavalry of the army of the Potomac until the close of the war. He was mustered out of the volunteer service in January, 1866, and shortly afterward was commissioned lieutenant-colonel of the Twenty-third Infantry, United States army, and sent to Idaho to settle the Indian disturbances. During the six years which followed, General Crook was engaged actively in Indian campaigns. In 1872 he went to Arizona, and compelled the Pi-Utes and Apaches to submit, and in 1875 he subdued the Sioux and Cheyenne Indians in the Northwest. In 1882 he drove the Mormons and squatters from the Indian lands upon which they had encroached, and in the following year forced the Chiricahuas to cease their depredations. In this latter campaign General Crook marched over two hundred miles, made over four hundred hostiles prisoners, and captured all their horses and plunder. He was made brigadiergeneral in 1873, and in 1888 was promoted majorgeneral, United States army. He introduced many reforms in the management of the Indians, the principal one being to compel the contractors to pay the Indians in cash for supplies, instead of store orders. orders. Under his vigorous management the tribes speedily became self-supporting. He died March 21, 1890.

CROOKED ISLAND, one of the Bahamas, valu