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ments.

CURWEN, JOHN, an English teacher of chorus singing; born in Heckmondwike, Yorkshire, Nov. 14, 1816. He was educated at University College, London, and became assistant minister at the Independent Church of Basingstoke, Hants, and later was co-pastor at Stowmarket, in Suffolk; and in 1844 became pastor at Plaistow, in Essex. He resigned in 1867 to devote himself to the direction of the larger organizations connected with the Tonic Sol-Fa Association, which he had founded in 1853. In 1879 he founded the Tonic Sol-Fa College. His principal work in connection with his life labors was The Standard Course of Lessons and Exercises on the Tonic Sol-Fa Method, which appeared in 1861, and the second edition in 1872. He also founded the Tonic Sol-Fa Reporter, issued monthly. He died at Manchester, June 26, 1880.

CURZON, GEORGE NATHANIEL, a British statesman, the eldest son of the Rev. Alfred Curzon, Baron Scarsdale; born in 1859; educated at Eton and at Balliol College, Oxford, where he graduated M. A. in 1887. He was a fellow of All Souls' and president of the Union Society, a debating club, where many English Parliamentarians first cultivated their oratorical powers. He was elected for the Southport division of Lancashire in 1886, and subsequently returned for the same constituency, as a Conservative. He became Under-Secretary for State in 1891-92, and Under-Secretary for Foreign Affairs in 1895. He has traveled extensively, and published Russia in Central Asia (1889); Persia and the Persian Question (1892); and Problems of the Far East (1894). In a debate in the House of Commons in 1895 he took a prominent part in advocating the view that peers, on succession to their titles, were eligible to sit in the Commons if they had not previously sat in the Upper House. The debate arose in connection with the incident wherein Viscount Wolmer, who had been returned as member for West Edinburgh, attempted to take his seat therefor, though subsequent to his election he had succeeded to the peerage upon the death of his father, the first Earl of Selborne. The House declared that the seat of Viscount Wolmer was vacant. Mr. Curzon subsequently introduced a bill to remove the disabilities of Peers from sitting in the House, providing they had not taken their seat in the Upper House, upon succeeding to their peerage.

The bill was withdrawn May 24, 1895. Mr. Curzon was married, April 22, 1895, to a famous beauty, Mary, the eldest daughter of Levi Z. Leiter, a Chicago millionaire, the wedding taking place amid much ceremony at the Washington home of the bride's father.

CUSACK, MARY FRANCES, philanthropist; born in Ireland in 1830. In 1859 she became a Roman

Catholic and joined a community of Franciscan nuns engaged in teaching poor girls. In 1861 she established a convent of the Sisters of Kenmare. In 1884 she opened the first house of the new order of the Sisters of Peace at Nottingham, England, and the following year a similar house in Jersey City, New Jersey. She published, as "the Nun of Kenmare," numerous works on religious subjects.

CUSCUS. See PHALANGER, Vol. XVIII, pp. 727, 728.

CALEB CUSHING.

CUSHING, CALEB, an American statesman; born in Salisbury, Massachusetts, Jan. 17, 1800. After graduating at Harvard in 1817 he was tutor of mathematics and natural philosophy there. until 1819; studied law; was admitted to the bar in 1822 and began practice in Newburyport. In 1825-26 he served in the legislature; traveled in Europe in 1829-31, and on his return to Massachusetts served again in the legislature. He was elected to Congress in 1835, serving until 1843. He was at first a Jeffersonian Republican, but afterward became a Whig and followed Tyler in his separation from that party. He was nominated three times by President Tyler for Secretary of the Treasury, but was rejected by the Senate. In 1843 he was made United States commissioner to China, and negotiated a treaty July 3, 1844, which was ratified Dec. 31, 1845. Having returned to Massachusetts, Mr. Cushing was elected to the legis lature in 1846 and advocated the war with Mexico, and on the refusal of the legislature to appropriate funds for a regiment of volunteers, he advanced the amount from his own purse. Appointed colonel of this regiment, he joined General Zachary Taylor in 1845, served in the Mexican War and was appointed brigadier-general, April 14, 1847. He subsequently was transferred to General Scott's command, remaining with it until the close of the war. In 1850 he served again in the Massachusetts legislature and was made the first mayor of Newburyport. In 1852 he was appointed an associate justice of the supreme court of Massachusetts, and in 1853 was made United States attorney-general. In 1860 he was president of the national Democratic convention and joined the faction of the extreme Southern party, becoming afterward president of the convention that nominated John C. Breckenridge for President. Mr. Cushing was sent to Charleston as the confidential agent of President Buchanan to induce the state troops to defer the attack on Fort Sumter, which mission was unsuccessful. During the Civil War he remained in Washington, and in 1866 was appointed, with two other jurists, to revise and codify the laws of the United States. In 1868 he was sent to the United States of Colombia, on a special

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study, and within a year made her debut as Lady Macbeth. For five years she appeared in New York City, thence going to Philadelphia, where, from 1842 to 1844, she was lessee of the Walnut Street Theater. In the latter year she accompanied (as leading lady) the English actor Macready in his tour through the United States, and in October sailed for England, where she successfully appeared as Rosalind, Bianca and Lady Macbeth. From this time until her final retirement from the stage in 1875 Miss Cushman's theatrical activity was uninterrupted. Much of her life was spent in Europe, particularly in Rome. Her fame was enhanced by the Shakespearean readings which she gave in the United States, and in which she especially excelled. Her sister Susan, who acted with her for several years, had uncommon ability. Charlotte Cushman: Her Letters and Memories of Her Life, was published by Emma Stebbins in 1878. Miss Cushman died in Boston, Feb. 18, 1876.

CUSHMAN, PAULINE, an actress and a government spy, the daughter of a Spanish refugee, was born in New Orleans, June 10, 1833. She began her career as a variety actress in Southwestern cities, and in 1863 was employed by the United States government to discover the Southern sympathizers and spies in Louisville, and their methods of conveying supplies across the lines. The same year she went beyond the lines in order to gain information of the strength of the Confederates and their contemplated movements. She was captured and sentenced to be hanged, but was left behind at the evacuation of Shelbyville, where she was found by the Union soldiers, who gave her the title of major. Her knowledge of the roads in the South was of considerable assistance to the army of the Cumberland. She died

Dec. 2, 1893

CUSHMAN, ROBERT, a Plymouth Pilgrim; born in Kent, England, in 1580; died in England in 1625. He was instrumental in obtaining the patent in which the king granted toleration to the American colonists for their form of religion, and Cushman embarked with his family on the Speedwell, Aug. 5, 1620, but returned with that vessel, and remained in England to act as financial agent for the colonists. The next year he went to New England, remaining but about two months, but while there he preached a sermon on Sin and Danger of Self-love, which became noted as the first sermon delivered in the New World that was published. It was published in London in 1622, and reprinted in Boston in 1724. While returning to England in 1621, he was captured by the French, held two weeks, and then released. 1623 he obtained a grant of territory on Cape Ann, where a new band of Pilgrims made the first permanent settlement within the limits of the Massachusetts Bay colony. He died in England in 1625.

In

CUSSET, a small town in Allier, central France, two miles N. E. of Vichy. It has two mineral springs and is noted for its healthful location and fine scenery. Population, 5,356.

CUST, ROBERT NEEDHAM, an English Orientalist and philologist; born in 1821 in Bedfordshire, England; educated at Eton, and entered her Majesty's Indian civil service. He remained in this employment until 1860, taking an active part in military service, and ardently devoting himself to the study of Oriental languages and customs. Upon his return to England he became a barrister at law. Mr. Cust is the author of Modern Languages of East Indies; Modern Lan guages of Africa; Modern Languages of Oceana; Sketches of Anglo-Indian Life; and, at the Chicago congresses of 1893, presented an important essay upon The Progress of African Philology.

CUSTER, a town and the capital of Custer County, southwestern South Dakota, on French Creek, and on the Burlington and Missouri River railroad, among the Black Hills. There is a large amount of lumber and some gold and silver in the vicinity. in the vicinity. Population 1890, 790.

GENERAL CUSTER.

CUSTER, GEORGE ARMSTRONG, an American soldier; born in New Rumley, Ohio, Dec. 5, 1839. After graduating at West Point in 1861, he at once entered into active service, his first battle being that of Bull Run. Subsequently he was appointed captain and aid to General McClellan, serving on his staff as long as the latter was in command. In 1863 he became aid to Gen. A. Pleasonton, and was appointed brigadiergeneral. He served with General Grant in the Wilderness, and with Sheridan in the Shenandoah valley. He commanded a cavalry division in the pursuit of Lee after the evacuation of Richmond. After the war he was made lieutenant-colonel, with the brevet of majorgeneral, and assigned to the Seventh United States Calvary. He served on General Hancock's expedition against the Cheyennes and Sioux, and in 1867 he was tried by court-martial for cruelty to his men, and for having left his command without permission. He was suspended for a year, but in 1868, at the request of General Sheridan, was restored, and rejoined his regiment. In 1873 he served in the Yellowstone expedition, and in 1874 was sent to explore the Black Hills. His report of the fertility and mineral wealth of that region led to rapid immigration, and encroachment on the Indian reservation caused trouble with the Sioux, who were led by the famous Sitting Bull. In 1876 General Sheridan ordered an expedition to march against the Indians to settle the troubles. This moved in three columns, under Generals Terry, Gibbon and Crook. General Custer led General Terry's column, and, upon reaching an encampment of the Indians on Little Big Horn River, divided his men into three bodies, and advanced himself with five companies. The Indians concentrated their force upon Custer's division, all of whom, Gen

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See The Complete Life of Gen. G. A. Custer, by Captain Frederick Whittaker (New York, 1876). His wife, Elizabeth Bacon Custer, is the authoress of Boots and Saddles (New York, 1886), and of Tenting on the Plains; or, Life with General Custer in Dakota (1888).

CUSTIS, GEORGE WASHINGTON PARKE, an American public man, was born at Mount Airy, Maryland, April 30, 1781. He was the son of Colonel John Parke Custis, who was the first husband of Mrs. George Washington. The son was brought up at Mount Vernon, being adopted into the family of George Washington, and studied at St. John's College and Princeton. In 1802 he left Mt. Vernon and erected Arlington House, near Washington, on a large estate derived from his father. Mr. Custis published Recollections of Washington (New York, 1860). Robert E. Lee married the daughter of Mr. Custis. Mr. Custis died at Arlington House, Virginia, Oct. 10, 1857.

CUTHBERT, a town and the capital of Randolph County, southwestern Georgia, 49 miles N.N.W. of Columbus, on the Central Railroad of Georgia. Its industries are principally agricultural. There are two colleges, one for girls and one for boys located here. Population 1890, 2,328. CUTHBERT BEDE, pseudonym of BRADLEY, EDWARD; q.V., in these Supplements.

CUTLER, MANASSEH, an American clergyman and botanist; born at Killingly, Connecticut, May 3, 1742. After graduating from Yale, he was admitted in 1767 to the Massachusetts bar. Finding the practice of law uncongenial, he undertook theological study, and in 1770 was licensed to preach. He was ordained pastor of the Congregational society of Hamlet parish, and continued in this relation until his death. During the closing years of the Revoluionary War his parish was without a physician, and Mr. Cutler at once applied himself to the study of medicine, and acquired sufficient knowledge of the science to provide the community with intelligent and skillful medical service. He was much interested in botany, and described more than 350 native species of New England plants. Mr. Cutler was one of the founders of the Ohio Company, an association of Revolutionary officers formed for the purpose of having their bounty lands located together, and for this organization he secured from the government a grant of 1,500,000 acres of land northwest of the Ohio River. He became a member of the Massachusetts legislature, and from 1801 to 1805 served as a Federalist in Congress, declining a re-election. He died at Hamilton, Massachusetts, July 28, 1823.

CUT-OUT, ELECTRIC, a device, in numerous forms, for switching, or cutting out, or separating some portion of an electric circuit from the remainder. It is often made with fusible wire connections, so that when too strong a current exists in a circuit the wires may burn out, thus cutting out the rest of the current, as in the interior of a

to do with the electrical apparatus. Such a cutout, placed on a building in an incandescent-light circuit, would prevent interior damage if the outside wires came in contact with the exposed wires of an arc circuit.

CUTTER, the name given to a type of small vessel. The cutters which are used by yachtsmen, smugglers and revenue cruisers, and which are built with special reference to speed, are small vessels with one mast and a bowsprit. See also SAIL, Vol. XXI, p. 153.

CUTTHROAT TROUT (Salmo mykiss), a fish of the trout family, characterized by a scarlet band on the throat. It is widely distributed throughout western North America. Sometimes it reaches a weight of 25 pounds.

CUTTINGS, branches or portions of branches of trees or shrubs employed to produce new plants, by burying the lower end in the earth so that new roots may arise from the nodes. See HORTICULTURE, Vol. XII, pp. 237, 238.

CUTWORMS, a name given to the larvæ, mostly of lepidopterous Noctualita, which eat off the stems, roots or leaves of many cultivated plants. One species ascends orchard trees and destroys the fruit buds.

CUVILLIER-FLEURY, ALFRED AUGUSTE, a French author and political writer; born in Paris, March 18, 1802. Louis Bonaparte appointed him his private secretary in 1819, and in 1827 he became the tutor of the young Duc d'Aumale. His career as a writer opened in 1834, when he became connected with the Journal des Débats. The articles published by him in this paper in 1872 concerning the plans and methods of the monarchist party brought him temporarily into great prominence. His numerous writings include Studies and Portraits; Historical and Literary Studies; and Political and Revolutionary Portraits. He died in Paris, Oct. 18, 1887.

CUYAHOGA FALLS, a town of Summit County, northeastern Ohio, three miles N. E. of Akron, on the Cuyahoga River, and on the Pittsburg and Western railroad. It manufactures extensively, principally clay-working machines, electrical machines, turbine water-wheels and wire-machines. It has abundant water-power and medicinal waters. Population 1890, 2,614.

CUYO, a port of Chile, which in colonial times extended east of the Andes. But difficulty of communication, on account of Araucanian wars, which blocked the best passes of the Andes, made its connection with Chile impracticable, and it was accordingly transferred to the new viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres, and the Andes were made the western boundary of Chile.

CYANEA, a genus of jelly-fishes of the class Acraspeda (Scyphomeduse). The animal is a diskshaped, jelly-like bell, of a reddish-brown color, varying from a few inches to several feet in diameter. The slender, thread-like tentacles are arranged in bundles, and are of great length.

CYANIDE PROCESS. See GOLD AND GOLDMINING, in these Supplements.

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CYANIDES OR SALTS OF PRUSSIC ACID. See CHEMISTRY, Vol. V, pp. 554, 555. CYANITE, KYANITE OR DISTHENE, a mineral composed of alumina .and silica. See MINERALOGY, Vol. XVI, p. 408.

CYANOGEN (CN or Cy), although intrinsically of little importance, is one of the most interesting compounds of carbon. Cyanogen forms poisonous compounds with metals, forming metallic | cyanides, of which the best known is the cyanide of potassium, a salt of much importance in photography. With hydrogen it forms the deadly prussic or hydrocyanic acid, while it is united with oxygen in cyanic acid. See CHEMISTRY, Vol. V, p. 554. CYANOTYPE PROCESSES, in photography, those processes in which the compound radical cyanogen is employed; they were discovered by Sir John Herschel. The process is employed in the making of the so-called "blue-prints." PHOTOGRAPHY, Vol. XVIII, p. 832.

See

It

CYATHEA, a genus of tropical tree-ferns, characterized by its cup-shaped indusium. forms the type of the family Cyatheacea, which includes the principal tree-ferns of palm-like habit. This family numbers about two hundred species, all tropical, and which form forests in certain parts of Australia. C. medullaris of New Zealand is one of the most common tree-ferns in cultivation.

CYATHOPHYLLUM, a genus of fossil stony corals, with a simple or branched polyparium, internally lamellated, the lamella having a quadripartite arrangement. The older portions are cut off by transverse "tables," or septa, and the base of the stem is often supported by rootlike processes. This genus first appeared in the Silurian, was abundant in the Devonian, and disappeared at the close of the Carboniferous epoch. See also Cyathophyllida, under CORALS, Vol. VI, p. 383.

CYAXARES. See PERSIA, Vol. XVIII, p. 563. CYCADS, a group of plants. See VEGETABLE KINGDOM, Vol. XXIV, p. 131.

CYCHLA, a genus of fishes of the family Chromida. They are remarkable for the beauty and brilliancy of their colors, and some of them are highly esteemed for the table. In form and habits they resemble the sunfishes. CYCLAMEN, a flowering plant. See HORTICULTURE, Vol. XII, pp. 251, 263.

CYCLE, a term used in chronology to denote an interval of time in which certain phenomena recur in the same order. Cycles have chiefly arisen from the fact that neither the year (the period of the earth around the sun), nor the month (the period of the moon around the earth), can be measured by days, or even by hours, so exactly as not to leave fractions. Cycles eliminate these fractions, since they are reckoned from the time a heavenly body is in a particular relation with the earth to a time when it again occupies the same place in the heavens and calendar. See Solar Cycle, Lunar Cycle and Cycle of Indiction, under CALENDAR, Vol. IV, pp. 669, 670; and Metonic Cycle, under ASTRONOMY, Vol. II, p. 747.

CYCLOBRANCHIATA, a name formerly applied to a group of mollusks in which the gills were circularly arranged. This was highly arti ficial, and is now obsolete.

CYCLODUS, a genus of lizards of the family Scincida, found in Australia and the neighboring islands.

CYCLOID. If a circle roll along a straight line in its own plane, any point on the circumference describes a curve which is called a cycloid. This is the most interesting of what are called the transcendental curves, both from its geometrical properties and its numerous applications in mechanics. In dynamics, for example, we find that a heavy particle descends from rest from any point in the arc of an inverted cycloid to the lowest point in the same time exactly, from whatever point of the curve it starts. See INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS, Vol. XIII, p. 53.

CYCLONES. See METEOROLOGY, Vol. XVI, pp. 154, 155; and in these Supplements. CYCLOPEAN WALLS. See ARCHITEcture, Vol. II, pp. 402, 452.

CYCLOPS, a genus of small fresh-water crustaceans, type of a family Cyclopida in the order Copepoda. See CRUSTACEA, Vol. VI, p. 664.

CYCLOSIS, the name employed to designate certain protoplasm confined within a cell-wall. These movements are characteristic of all cytoplasm, and appear as currents setting in various directions, sometimes steadily about the cell-walls, sometimes along strands connecting the wall cytoplasm with that investing the nucleus, flowing in one direction for a time, and then perhaps reversing it. The currents are made visible from the fact that the cytoplasm current carries numbers of opaque granules. This movement is also known as "circulation" and "rotation," and is easily seen in the body-cells of the Characea, leaves of Anacharis and Vallisneria, stamen-hairs of Tradescantia, etc.

CYDNUS, a river of Asia Minor. See ASIA MINOR, Vol. II, p. 709. CYLINDER PRESS. Supplements.

CYMA, in architecture. Vol. II, pp. 408, 463.

See PRESSES, in these

See ARCHITECTURE,