worded document had produced the desired effect upon minds not previously won back to monarchical ideas.

Colonies.

On the completion of the war in Tonquin, in 1884, this country and that of Annam were placed under the administration of a French ResidentGeneral residing at Hué; but the Government of the combined protectorate has not yet been thoroughly organized. Owing to various causes, but chiefly, it appears, to an unfortunate choice of administrators, the country makes no great progress towards settlement. Within two years the colony has witnessed the passage through its administration of two Governors-General, one Resident-General, one Acting Resident-General, one Minister-Resident, and one Secretary-General acting as Minister-Resident. During M. Paul Bert's brief term of office he appointed a native viceroy over Tonquin, whilst the Minister-Resident exercised authority over the southern part of Annam, and the native King of Annam governed the remainder. This arrangement was thought to be working fairly well, when the French Government sent out a Commissioner to inquire into the situation. Between him and the Minister-Resident a conflict of authority immediately arose, and once more the Government was called upon (1887) to arrange the quarrels of its servants in the East.

The ideas of the Commissioner in respect of the future administration of French Indo-China appeared to be based in some measure on the system adopted by Great Britain. in her Oriental dependencies. He advised that Annam and Tonquin should be fully administered by native authorities, and that the French Residents should be simply attached to the supreme Governor in order to give advice and counsel. They should be under the control of a Governor

or Minister-Resident at Hué, acquainted with the language and customs of the people, and should abstain from taking any part in the local administration. There should be garrisons of French troops in reserve near the coasts, and the native police should be trained by French non-commissioned officers, but commanded by the native authorities. The Commissioner submitted these ideas to the King of Annam, and secured his adhesion to them in general terms.

Acting in part upon this report, the French Government has appointed a Governor of Indo-China, under the control of the Ministry of Marine, and it is understood to be considering the best mode of utilizing native authority and influence in the administration of the combined territories.

During the year an agreement was arrived at between France and Great Britain, defining the sphere of action of the two countries in their neighbouring East African territories. By the terms of the understanding Great Britain recognizes the rights of France over the Obock territory and the Gulf of Tadjoureh, and cedes to that country the island of Mushah, situated in the middle of the Gulf. The frontier line of the French territory extends from Cape Djiboujeh, situated beyond the frontier of the districts already under French protection to Harar, from which place it runs in a westerly direction to Shoa. France, on her part, acknowledges the authority of Great Britain in the territories situated to the east of Cape Djiboujeh, including Dongareta.

The important conventions between Great Britain and France in respect of the Suez Canal, the New Hebrides, and the Tahiti group, have been mentioned above (p. 199). (See also under Germany, 1887.)

GUATEMALA.

Central America, between Mexico and Colombia, is now divided into five Republics-Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and San Salvador-carved out of the old Spanish State of Guatemala. The yoke of Spain was thrown off in 1821, and a federal constitution (Conservative or "Servile ") was proclaimed three years later. In 1839, the Confederation was broken up, since which time the five Republics have been under separate government.

In 1871 General Barrios was elected to the Presidency of Guatemala (capital, Santiago de Guatemala). He represented what was known as the Liberal party in the country, and amongst his first acts was the expulsion of the Roman Catholic bishops, the Jesuits, Franciscans, Capucins, and Dominicans; which was followed by the disendowment of the Church, and the appropriation of the funds and edifices to the use of the Government, and for public. education. This summary treatment of the religious establishment in Guatemala must be read in the light cast by history upon the shameful abuses of the Spanish dominion in America, which had rendered such a revolt inevitable.

Central America has not been accurately surveyed; the area of Guatemala, on an average of estimates, is about 50,000 square miles. Population, about 1,400,000, or twenty-eight to the square mile. Nearly one-third of these are of European descent, the remainder being Indios. One consequence of the discredit into which religion has fallen is that something like one-fourth of the births are illegitimate.

GOVERNMENT.

The actual Constitution was adopted in 1859, and subsequently enlarged in various important particulars.

The President is elected every six years by direct popular vote. The Assembly at the same time nominates two deputies, in order to supply without further election any accidental vacancy during the Presidential term. The framers of the constitution took credit to themselves for having thus guarded against what appeared to them a blemish in the United States model-the election of a President by caucus.

The President is assisted by a Council of State, consisting of fifteen members, appointed by himself, whereof six are the Secretaries for Foreign Affairs, Government and Justice, Commerce and Public Credit, War, Interior, and Public Instruction. It is the duty of the Secretaries of State to make annual reports on the affairs of their departments to the Assembly, and to that extent they relieve the President of executive responsibility.

The National Assembly, which has only one House, meets on the 1st of March for a session of two months, which can be extended in case of need. The members are elected by universal suffrage, to the number of one for every 20,000 of the population. One-half of the Chamber is renewed in each alternate year, the electoral mandate thus extending over four years.

Guatemala is divided into twenty-three Departments, subdivided into sixty-one Districts. The local administration extends over 66 eleven cities (ciudades), thirty-two towns (villas), two hundred and ninety-nine villages (pueblos), fourteen hundred and six settlements (aldeas), fifty-nine shore hamlets (caserios litorales), and three thousand seven hundred and forty-two interior hamlets (caserios rurales)."* There are local elections for minor

*"Guatemala." By W. T. Brigham. (T. Fisher Unwin).

offices, but the President appoints the Governor (Jefe Politico) of each Department, as well as the Judges and magistrates. The Spaniards introduced their own version of Roman law, which has been gradually adapted to the circumstances of the country, and embodied in a special code. The judges are appointed for four years, and they are eligible for re-appointment. It may be doubted whether this plan is best calculated to secure the independence of the bench.

and

Religion.

Education in Guatemala is free and compul- Education sory, being supported in part, as already said, out of the confiscated revenues of the Church, and many of the sacred edifices (superfluous so far as accommodation for worship is concerned) being used as schools. Primary education was defined in a Presidential decree of 1879 to consist of reading and writing in Spanish, linear drawing and object lessons, history and geography, morals and manners (moral y urbanidad). There are about 900 primary schools in Guatemala, including those under private management, to which the State makes a contribution. in aid. A further instance of the centralization of government in this Republic is afforded by the fact that the Ministry of Public Instruction not only visits and inspects the schools, but also appoints the teachers. The sum annually voted for primary schools and departmental expenses is about £50,000, but the ecclesiastical property devoted to the service of education represents a considerable sum in addition to this. The average attendance represents about one in four of the total number of children of school age.

Secondary and higher education is also aided by Government grants, and is spoken of by competent observers as being in an efficient condition.