intrusted to other Departments. But there are statutory limits, or limits inherent in the Parliamentary constitution of the country, which would prevent, in case of need, anyabuse of the admitted liberty of action. Thus the Council is compelled to seek a Parliamentary sanction for any increase of the Indian debt, and returns have to be regularly made of all kinds of expenditure incurred by it. The Indian budget is annually presented to the House of Commons, and no doubt an effective popular control could soon be established over Indian finances if circumstances should occur to arouse in the constituencies unusual interest or anxiety.

The establishment of the India Office in St. James's Park comprises, in addition to the Secretary, UnderSecretaries, Council, and Committees or Secretarial Departments, as they are commonly called-a large staff of Clerks, an Accountant-General's Department, a Registry and Record Department, an Audit Department, a Railway and Irrigation Department, a Medical Board, Inspectors, Supervisors, &c.

A Principal Secretary of State for War was The War first appointed in 1794-5, in addition to the Sec- Office. retary at War who previously superintended the details of the War Department. The Secretary at War shared his responsibility with the Commander-in-Chief and the Board of Ordnance, whilst the Secretary of State, who was intended on his appointment to be specially answerable to Parliament, was so only in theory. In 1801 the affairs of the Colonies were intrusted to this latter official, who came to be regarded as a Colonial rather than as a War Minister. It was not until 1854 that the Crown appointed a distinct Secretary of State for War alone; and still the Secretary

at War was retained. But two years afterwards this lastnamed office was abolished, and the Secretary of State was made responsible for the general details of the Department, including ordnance and commissariat, militia and yeomanry. But there remains, of necessity, the Commanderin-Chief and his indispensable authority in regard to the army under his command; and it is difficult to see how any arrangement of duties could entirely remove the anomaly, with its consequent embarrassments, arising out of this duality. The principle, however, is now distinctly recognized that, the standing army being a Parliamentary force, for whose discipline and pay an annual vote of Parliament provides, its general management must be committed to an official directly responsible to Parliament, who must be in essence and form supreme over all other military officials.

Therefore the War Office is superior in authority to the Horse Guards, which is the department of the Commanderin-Chief, and it is necessary that all appointments and promotions in the army, which are actually made by the Commander-in-Chief, and all measures initiated by the Horse Guards, should be submitted for the sanction of the Secretary of State for War, in order that he may be answerable for the same to Parliament. If he rarely intervenes, he might at any moment withhold his sanction; and he would be just as answerable for withholding it as he is for giving it. As the Secretary is a member of the Cabinet, he can always fortify himself beforehand by taking the opinion of his colleagues; and, as a matter of fact, the most important commands in view of active service abroad are usually made by consultation between the Cabinet and the Commander-in-Chief.

For upwards of thirty years the Secretary of State for War has been a member of the House of Commons; and his Political Under-Secretary is usually a peer. There is also a Financial Under-Secretary in the Commons.

The establishment in Pall-Mall includes a Permanent Under-Secretary, an Assistant Under-Secretary, Directors of Supplies, Artillery and Stores, Contracts and Clothing, and the Chaplain-General. This is the Central Department. There are also the Departments of the Surveyor-General of the Ordnance, of the Financial Secretary, and of the Commander-in-Chief- under whom are the AdjutantGeneral, with his Deputy-Assistant, and Deputy-Assistant Adjutants-General, the Quartermaster-General, &c. Sundry other Departments, and large staffs of officials and clerks, complete the establishment.

The Board of Admiralty is the outcome of an The Act of Parliament passed in 1690, and of a Admiralty. subsequent resolution of the House of Commons, whereby the old office of Lord High Admiral has been put into commission. The Board consists (like the Treasury Board) of Lords Commissioners-a First Lord and four Junior Lords. On every change of Administration it is re-constituted (as also on every removal of an individual Commissioner) by letters patent under the Great Seal. It has the general management of the navy at home, in foreign seas, and at the various colonies and dependencies, as well as of the dockyards and stores, of promotions and expenditure.

The Board is less independent than some other Departments of the Government. The First Lord, though always a Cabinet Minister, is not a Secretary of State, and the requirements of the Principal Secretaries are in the nature

of royal commands, which have to be carried out. Therefore in regard to the disposition of the fleet for particular services the Board has only executive functions, but within that limit it has a power of deliberation and initiation. In its independent action it is required to be unanimous. It is a rule that two at least of the Junior Lords should be naval, whilst the First Lord and one Junior Lord are generally civilians, and in Parliament.

The Political Under-Secretary is usually in a different House of Parliament from his chief, and when the First Lord is a peer the Under-Secretary is called upon to explain the Navy Estimates in the Commons.

At the office in Whitehall, in addition to the Board, its Secretaries, and the Permanent Under-Secretary, there are accommodated ten subordinate departments-the Secretary's, the Controller's, with its Constructive and Engineering Staff, the Victualling, Contract and Purchase, Medical, Accountant-General's, Transport, and Hydrographic Departments, and the Departments of the Director of Works and the Superintendent of Naval Reserves.

Channel The chief distinctive privileges of the Channel Islands. Islands date from the thirteenth century, when, to confirm their attachment to England, it was conceded that the inhabitants should be tried exclusively by their own courts, that no trial should be removed out of the islands (except in Admiralty cases), that no taxes should be levied by the monarch, and that the islands should make and use their own laws.

Both Jersey and Guernsey are governed by their States, which raise money for public purposes by local taxation,

and enact laws subject to the approval of the Privy Council. These laws, however, remain provisionally in force for three years, and lapse if they are not actually sanctioned within that period.

The States of Jersey include 12 jurats elected by the ratepayers for life, the rectors of the 12 parishes of the island (chosen by the Governor), the constables of the same parishes, elected triennially as constables, and 14 deputies from the parishes and towns. The sittings of the States are presided over by the Bailiff, appointed by the Crown, who is the Chief Justice of the island. The Governor is the head of the Executive, and his approval is necessary to validate the proceedings of the States. Justice is administered by the Bailiff and the 12 jurats; and there is also an attorneygeneral, a solicitor-general, a high sheriff, and six avocats, or counsel, nominated by the Bailiff.

There is a code of laws which was issued under authority in 1771. Amongst the most ancient social customs of Jersey is that of gavel-kind, by which the land of a deceased person is shared by his children-the eldest son, however, taking one-half.

The States of Guernsey include the Bailiff and AttorneyGeneral, 12 jurats elected by the ratepayers, and the rectors and constables of the nine parishes. Otherwise the government is the same as for Jersey.

Each island has a lieutenant-governor and a military establishment, the cost of which is borne by the nation. Ecclesiastically the islands are in the diocese of Winchester, of which Guernsey constitutes a deanery.

Man.

Man, which was a kingdom at the end of the Isle of fifteenth century, and subsequently held in feudal tenure by the earls of Derby and the dukes of Atholl, was