CHAPTER VIII. Laws. Asia. Its boundaries. Extent and population. Ancient Asia. General principles of the present Asiatic governments. Points of difference between them and the European. Despotism. Religion. Grand Lama. China. Its extent. Population. Military force. Government. Powers of the emperor. The mandarins. Religion. Foc. Tradition concerning him. Principles inculcated. Confucius. Language. Verbal. Written. Number and nature of Chinese characters: manner of writing. Art of Printing. Occupation and condition of the poor. Tea. Quantity raised. Quantity exported and consumed in Great Britain. In the United States. Hong merchants. Their monopoly. Its effects. Rivers and canals. Navy and navigation. Principal cities. Pekin. Canton. Nankin. ASIA. Asia is separated from the southern portion of Europe by the Black sea; and its waters communicating with the Mediterranean. The isthmus of Suez connects it with Africa, to the extent of sixty miles. The Red Sea and the Arabian gulf separate the two continents on the residue of the eastern border of Asia. It is encompassed on all other sides by water, bearing the names of the Indian, Pacific, and Frozen oceans. On the northeast of Asia, in latitude 66°, the eastern and western continents are separated by Behring's straits, forty miles wide at the narrowest point. The precise boundary between land and water, in the northern regions of the eastern continent is not ascertained. In Asia, some points of land are supposed to extend within twelve degrees of the pole; but neither land or water, in those regions, are capable of being converted to the use of man. The geographical extent of Asia is from latitude 2o to 78° north; and from 26° to 190° east, being at the same point as 170° west longitude. Its extreme length is 8000, and breadth 4000 miles, and is computed to contain 16,000,000 square miles, and more than one half of the human race, ANCIENT ASIA. Asia is, in many respects, an interesting portion of the globe, not so much from its present condition as from what it has been. It is the origin of the human family of all nations, religions, and States; of language, arts, and scien ANCIENT ASIA. ces. It is rich in the gifts of nature, and in historical remembrances. The theatre of human operations in ancient times, it still exhibits some characteristic traits of what it has been. It contains the site of Eden, of Babylon, of Jerusalem, and the places where most of the important events related in ancient Jewish and Christian history were exhibited. Asia was the seat of civilization when Europe was barbarous. In later periods the scene is changed. Europe has gained what Asia has lost. Arts, learning, civilization, and improvement, have been progressing for centuries, from east to west. All the grades of society are still to be found in the existing nations of Asia, from the savage state of wandering hordes, to a condition of refined luxury; but liberty, founded in law and a high state of moral and intellectual improvement, is not to be found. Some of the most important differences between the present Asiatic and European nations are, 1st. In the nature of their respective governments. Absolute monarchy, or despotism, the prevailing government in Asia, is a different thing from what it is in Europe. There the king, emperor, or sovereign, under whatever name he is designated, has the lives and property of his subjects at his control, and can take either, at his pleasure, without account. A regular assessment, according to the ability of the subject, is scarcely known. This tyranny is exercised, especially in distant provinces, by subordinate officers, with extreme rigor. The idea that the obligations between the governors and governed are reciprocal, and that in return for the obedience, money, and services of the subject, the government owes him protection and safety, is not admitted in the Asiatic system of civil policy. The monarch is every thing, and the people nothing. 2d. In the means of education. Universities, colleges, and schools of various orders, with which European nations abound, and which diffuse useful knowledge through the community, are not to be found in Asia. Printing establishments, in the manner, and for the purposes for which they exist in some of the nations of Europe, and in the United States, are unknown. The principal teachers are the priests, and the chief subjects taught, are blind obedience to the monarch, and the worship of idols. 3d. Another difference, being the result of the foregoing, is a state of deplorable ignorance, indolence, and want of enterprise among the people. Property being insecure, there is no inducement to acquire any more than to satisfy immediate want. Society is confined to castes; children learn nothing but the occupation of their parents, and in most cases are allowed to pursue no other. No improvements are made from one generation to another. To this state of indolence, the climate and soil, especially of southern Asia, also contributes. A great portion lies ANCIENT ASIA. within the northern tropic, where the heat enervates; and the soil is either a barren desert, or fertile to such a degree as to render little labor necessary to procure what will sustain human life. This condition is as unfavorable to mental improvement as to bodily exertion, and the human intellect is here found in its least progressive state. 4th. In relation to perpetual personal servitude. In Europe it does not exist, except in Turkey, which is Asiatic in all its important features. In Asia, with few or no exceptions, it is allowed. 5th. In relation to marriage, and the station allotted to females in society. Marriage, in the European senge of the word, is unknown in Asia. Its inhabitants have no idea of the exclusive connection of one man with one woman on reciprocal terms, and for mutual benefit. The obligation is considered as all on the part of the female; and women are, indeed, little better than slaves. They are frequently matter of traffic between the parent and husband, and every one is allowed to purchase as many as he pleases; and being purchased, they must be subservient to his will. The lower classes do most of the labor; those of the higher, are shut up and strictly watched, being allowed no intercourse, except with their attendant females, eunuchs, and their masters. 6th. Another important difference is, that the governments of Europe have certain fixed laws, established and known, by which the conduct of the subject is regulated; and these laws are enforced according to certain established principles, by judicial officers; and no persons are to be punished except for a violation of such as have been previously promulgated. Laws and courts, in this sense, are not known in Asia. The will of the despot, no matter how promulgated, or how little known, is the law. The mode of enforcing it, also depends on his will, and is accomplished by his subordinates without any fixed rules. 7th. Another important difference between the two countries, relates to the subject of religion. Asia was the birth place, and the cradle of Christianity; but it has so effectually left the country, that in describing its religion, it is scarcely to be mentioned. Mahometanism prevails to a considerable extent in western and central Asia. Idolatry, or paganism, in its various forms, constitutes the religion of the residue of the inhabitants, being about three fourths of the whole. The two important divisions or sects, are those of Brahma, and of the grand lama. former has been already described. The grand lama, the high priest, of the latter, is considered not merely as the representative of the divinity, but as God himself, dwelling among men. A belief of his eternal existence is connected with the doctrine of the transmigration of souls. His worshippers suppose that this divinity, as soon as it leaves the body of one grand lama at The GRAND LAMA. his death, immediately enters another human body in a supernatural way, so that he only changes his external form, and not his actual existence. GRAND LAMA. The usual place of residence of the grand lama, or the person in whom this supreme divinity dwells on earth, is in two monasteries in the neighborhood of Lassa, the capital of Thibet. His abode is alternately at a fixed period in each, surrounded by a great number of priests of different grades. Natives in great numbers, and many foreigners, undertake fatiguing pilgrimages, to pay him homage, and obtain his blessing. The Tartars, next to the inhabitants of Thibet, pay him the greatest reverence. Pilgrims come from distant regions, and the farther the distance, and the greater the difficulties attending the pilgrimage, the more is its merit. He receives them, sitting on a kind of throne or altar, on a splendid seat. The greatest prince, and meanest subject, are of equal grade in his estimation, and treated alike. He salutes no one; never rises, or uncovers his head; but merely lays his hand upon them, by which they suppose that they receive the pardon of their sins, his blessing, and a passport to future happiness. His worshippers believe that the supreme divinity dwells in him; that he knows every thing which passes in the human breast, and has no need of information from without. He sometimes distributes balls of consecrated dough, which his followers gladly accept, and use in many superstitious ceremonies, believing them to possess a wonderful efficacy. When a grand lama dies, it becomes necessary to discover the person in whom the supreme divinity has chosen to be born anew. On this occasion, all must submit to the decision of some distinguished lamas, who affect a discovery by certain signs, the person who has been selected. The grand lama has one subordinate lama, residing at ten day's journey from Lassa, and three shammers, or priests, next in order to him, residing in separate monasteries. Subordinate to these, are numerous priests of different ranks, who superintend instruction, and are held in high estimation. At Lassa are 3000 monasteries, or priest's houses. Their idols, one hundred in number are supposed to be created beings, who attained to the rank of gods, on account of their holiness, before this world was created. The earth, according to their belief, is inhabited by degenerate spirits from the upper world; and the human soul, after it has been subjected to a state of trial, enters upon a higher or lower state of existence in future, according to its conduct in this life. This doctrine of a future condition of happiness or misery, dependent upon the result of such trial, renders the worshippers of the lama, moral and benevolent. Their idol worship consists in clamorous songs and prayers, accompanied with music, in splendid and festive processions; in the observ CHINA. ance of certain festivals, and in pilgrimages and penances. The grand lama and his subordinate priests, having the control of the consciences of the people, exact from them contributions al pleasure. Shamanism, a species of this religion, belongs to the tribes of northern Asia and the Russian Archipelago. This gloomy picture of the religious, moral and political condition of more than one half of the human family, has excited the sympathies of the christian community in a high degree. Societies are formed, and exertions making, the purpose of which is to convert the world to Christianity. Asia is the principal theatre. Whatever differences of opinion there may be as to the final result of this great enterprize, there can be none as to its beneficial effects, so far as it may be accomplished. CHINA. From this view of the present condition of Asia in general, we pass to the consideration of its principal kingdoms, the most extensive and important of which is China. This empire, including its tributary states, and those under its protection, is computed to contain 5,000,000 of squre miles, and 240,000,000 inhabitants, or about one third of the whole human race. All estimates of its extent and population are in a great degree conjectural. It is certain, however, that the Chinese government extends over a much greater mass of people than any other. One salutary effect at least, of the collection of such a number of people under one government, is the preservation of peace. China has been less afflicted with wars, since Europeans have become acquainted with its history, than any other nation. China proper, called by its inhabitants the celestial empire, and the centre of the world, contains something more than 1,000,000 of square miles, and about 150,000,000 inhabitants. It lies on the eastern border of Asia, between 19° and 42° north latitude, and is bounded on the north by the celebrated wall of Mongola, 1500 miles in length, separating it from the Mongul Tartars, and on the east and south it is washed by the Chinese sea, a distance of 2000 miles. The Burman empire bounds it on the southwest, and Thibet and Tartary on the west. Its army is estimated at 900,000 men, and its annual revenue at $150,000,000. It has been the policy of the Chinese government, from the earliest period at which Europeans had any intercourse with its inhabitants, to exclude foreigners from all knowledge of its internal concerns. For a long time they were not suffered to reside within its dominions, and at later periods only at certain designated places, where they could have the least opportunity of obtaining information of the country. Several attempts have been made since the trade with China has become important, to establish diplomatic relations, but without success; they will neither send nor receive ambassadors; holding all foreigners in contempt, they consider it a spe |