the Oo, in the southern regions. These three kingdoms and the reigning families were again annihilated by Voo-tee, who founded the dynasty of the western Tsin, A.D. 265; while Yuen-ty, in like manner, established that of the eastern Tsin, A.D. 317; but neither of these princes were long in possession of all China, and several provinces revolted during their respective reigns. After the destruction of their dynasty, A.D. 420, the whole country was thrown into a state of confusion, which gave rise to two empires, the northern and the southern. The empire of the north was almost constantly occupied by the Oey or Tartars named Topa, of whom the Yuen Oey (or first Oey) reigned in Shan-see and Honan from A.D. 386 to 534; the Tong-Oey (or eastern Oey) reigned in Honan from A.D. 534 to 550, when they were displaced by the family of Pe-tsee, who held the throne till A.D. 578; and the See Oey (or western Oey) reigned in Shen-see from A.D. 535 to 556, when they were displaced by the Heootcheoo (or later Tcheoo), who prevailed till A.D. 581. The empire of the south was held from A.D. 420 to A.D. 479, by the dynasty of Song, which was followed in 479 by that of Tsee; in 503 by that of Leang; and in 557 by that of Tchin. In 581, the two empires were united by Ventee, founder of the Soo-ee dynasty, which was displaced in 618 by that of Tang; during the latter end of whose government, the empire was agitated by new troubles, desolated by the Tartars, named Kee-tan, and divided into so many independent sovereignties, that it was reduced within a very narrow compass, under the Heoo-oo-tay (or five later dynasties): the Heoolang in 907, the Heoo-tang in 923, the Heoo-tsin in 936, the Heoo-han in 947, and the Heoo-tcheoo in 951. These commotions and divisions were once more terminated in 960 by Taytsoo, founder of the dynasty of Song; but the two Tartar nations of Kee-tan and Kin, or Niu-tche, and the prince of Hya still retained possession of the northern parts of China. In 1127, the Kin having destroyed the Kee-tan, the Song were obliged to remove the seat of their empire to a greater distance from these formidable neighbours, and resided in the province of Tche-kiang, till they called in the Yuen or Moguls, called by the Chinese Mong-koo, to assist them against the Kin in 1235, and were themselves overthrown by those allies in 1260, when Kublai-Khan, a descendant of the renowned Gengis-khan, became absolute sovereign of all China. Since the establishment of the Mogul dynasty, the empire has never been again divided; but has experienced two great revolutions, at the accession of the Chinese dynasty of Ming in 1368, and of the Mantchoo Tartars in 1644; and has scarcely, in any reign, been entirely free from revolts, wars, and domestic seditions. The empire of China, in short, instead of having existed as a great and united nation 3000 years before Christ, was never formed into one state till the year before Christ 220; but, being soon again dismembered, and only transiently united under successive sovereigns, has composed one sole and undivided monarchy only since the year of Christ 1279. Instead, therefore, of being regarded as a privileged country, governed from time immemorial by the same constitution, exempt from foreign conquest and intestine commotions; the only peculiarity which it possesses, in comparison with the other empires which have disappeared from the earth, is this, that, owing perhaps to its peninsular situation, at the extremity of the habitable world, and its consequent exemption from the sweep of those conquering nations, who changed the people whom they overthrew, it has preserved its manners and usages in a great measure unaltered, amidst the various revolutions and subjugations which it has experienced.

Five emperors of the Tartar race in succession, and all of them men of good understanding and vigorous minds, have now continued, without interruption, to rule over the Chinese empire; and have thus, it may he supposed, completely established their family in the supreme power. Recent occurrences, however, begin to indicate a more unsettled state of things in that country, and at least to show, that the administration of so vast an empire is becoming daily a more difficult task. The Tartars, increasing in security, have become less attentive to conciliate the Chinese; and all the high offices are filled with the countrymen of the sovereign. It is suspected, that the government entertain a design of introducing the Mantchoo language into general use, instead of the Chinese, as great attention has been paid to its improvement, and as all the children, one of whose parents is of Tartar descent, have been expressly required to be instructed during their infancy, and to pass their public examinations in the Mantchoo tongue.

CHAP. II.-PHYSICAL FEATURES-CLIMATE-PRODUCTIONS.

Mountains.] The general aspect of China is that of a level, fertile, and highly cultivated country. Its surface is, however, varied by mountain chains of considerable magnitude, though they seem to be only lower stages of those enormous masses which stretch across central Asia, One chain, seemingly a prolongation of the Himalaya ridge, runs through the southern provinces, from west to east, and terminates on the sea coast, a little to the south of the great river the Yang-tse-kiang. Part of this ridge, lying between Pekin and Canton, has been crossed by Europeans. Being covered with verdure and trees to the very summit, which is in many places crowned with pagodas, it presents a variety of picturesque aspects. The mountains in the north of China appear also to be very considerable, particularly those that separate the province of Shen-si from that of Se-chwen A lofty chain, consisting chiefly of naked rocks, runs along the whole northern frontier, separating China from Tartary. A branch of this chain turns aside the stream of the Hoan-ho five or six hundred miles, though by a circuitous tract it again reaches its original line of course. The province of Shan-tong consists for the most part of a group of mountains wholly detached from any other range, and running out towards the N.E into a large peninsula. These mountains contain coal mines.

Rivers.] China is distinguished for the magnitude of her rivers, and is doubtless indebted to them in a great measure for her early advances in culture and civilization. The Hoan-ho, or Yellow river, and the Yangtse-kiang, or Blue river, two mighty parallel streams, water the whole extent of its central regions. These rivers rise from almost unknown sources in the heart of Thibet, and from the summit probably of that loftiest portion of the globe. The Hoan-ho, after entering China, is, as already noticed, turned to the north, and carried even beyond the limits of the empire, but it soon recrosses them, and this winding course serves only to diffuse more widely the benefits of its waters. After spreading fertility through some of the finest provinces of China, it falls into the ocean at a very small distance from its brother stream, from which it had once been separated by an interval of more than a thousand miles. The course of the Hoan-ho is estimated, though with some uncertainty, at about 1800 miles; that of the Yang-tse-kiang at 2200. This last has by the grandeur of its stream struck all travellers with admiration. Marco Polo consider

ed it, America being then unknown, as decidedly the greatest river in the world; and Mr Ellis conceives, that only those of the New World can dispute its native title of the "firstborn of Ocean." Its breadth, above Nankin, is from three to four miles, its banks populous, diversified by wooded mountains, and highly picturesque. These primary streams have numerous tributaries, several of which equal the greatest rivers of Europe. The Yuenho, the Hoeiho, and the Hoay-ho fall into the Yellow river. The Yalon-kiang (itself 700 miles in length) the Tchoo, the Ta-kiang and the Yuen-kiang are tributary to the Blue River. But besides these, China has two independent rivers of great magnitude, the Peiho in the north, which, after rising in Tartary, passes Pekin, and falls into the Yellow sea; and the Kankiang in the south, which, after a course of nearly 700 miles, falls into the sea of China, near Canton, thus giving origin to the immense trade of that city.

Lakes.] Of the Lakes of China the Poyang is the best known, having been sailed through by a late embassy. It is about 30 or 40 miles in circumference, and the scenery is most striking, being surrounded by lofty granite mountains, down which vast torrents are continually pouring. On its banks are several large cities, and the tops of the hills are adorned with numerous pagodas. The Tung-ting lake, according to Mr Ellis' information, is much longer, being nearly 300 miles across. It is situated in the province of Hou-quang, which signifies the Country of Lakes, and fully answers to the title, though all the others are much smaller than the Tungting. No remarkable lakes appear to occur in any other part of the empire.

Canals.] If China is happily situated with regard to rivers, she has been no less happy in, every where, improving and connecting her navigation by canals, which she has done to an extent that surpasses all other nations. No nation can produce a parallel to the Yun-ho or Great Canal, which extends in a continuous line from Pekin to the Yang-tse-kiang, a distance of 500 miles, and by means of which an inland navigation is maintained, with the interruption of a single day's journey, between Pekin and Canton, a distance of not less than 1200 miles. This great work is said to have been executed under the reign, and by the directions of Khublai Khan, a grandson of the renowned Genghis Khan. The Chinese canals are not constructed on the same artificial and scientific principles as those of Europe, nor composed, like them, of standing water, fed by reservoirs, elevated and lowered by locks. They are formed merely by turning aside the course of a river, and conducting its waters, by an artificial channel, till they join those of another river, from which it is again continued, according as it is found necessary or practicable. They have, for the want of locks, generally, a more circuitous course than European canals, and their waters, instead of being, like them, at rest, have a perceptible current. The Wenho, a river in the province of Shan-tung, is the main feeder of the Great Canal, from which it descends on one side to the north, falling into the Peiho, near Pekin; and thence, on the other side, to the south, till it joins the Hoang-ho or Yellow river; thence to the Yang-tsekiang, which great stream, with its tributary, the Kan-kiang, carries on the navigation to the frontier of the province of Canton. It is here interrupted by a chain of mountains, to cross which occupies a day's journey, when the traveller embarks upon another river, the Pe-keaung, which carries him to Canton. Smaller canals, connecting the rivers and larger canals with each other, are innumerable; and there occur many bridges, remarka

ble for their magnitude, and the difficulties to be overcome in their construction.

Climate.] A country extending from north to south so far as China, must necessarily experience great variety of climate. The southern provinces, from their proximity to the equator, experience heats stronger than those of Bengal, but moderated by periodical winds; and the northern provinces, owing partly to their distance from the equator, and partly to the neighbourhood of the lofty mountains of Tartary, are extremely cold. The mean heat of Canton is about 76° of Fahrenheit's scale. At Pekin, the mean term of the greatest heat is 121°; that of the greatest cold 63° below zero; the medium heat of the year 55°. The winds are often extremely violent, especially at Pekin. June, July, and August, are the rainy months: it seldom rains in winter. No part of China is said to be unhealthy, a circumstance which may be owing, in some measure, to the state of cultivation in which the country has long existed.

Vegetable Productions.] In China are produced all the fruits common to the tropical and temperate zones; but some of them do not succeed well. The apples, grapes, and pomegranates, are very indifferent; olives, though abundant, are gathered for eating, but not for making oil; a wild apricot, however, which flourishes in bleak tracts and a barren soil, is much used for that purpose. The oil is expressed from the kernels, and the stones are consumed as fuel. There are lemons no bigger than walnuts, and large oranges with a large solid pulp. China has some fruits and vegetables peculiar to itself; such as the li-chi (dimocarpus litchi), the long-yan, dragon's eye (dimocarpus longan) hwang pi (cookia punctata), &c. grain, rice is the staple produce; then barley, and after that wheat, especially in the north; buck-wheat, millet, maize, pease, beans, and other vetches, are the other kinds of grain and pulse most cultivated. Sugarcane, cotton, hemp, lintseed, tobacco, indigo, mulberries, varnish trees, (Rhus vernix,) camphor, tallow-trees (Stillingia Sebifera), and cinnamon, are among the trees and shrubs most common in the fields and gardens. But the most remarkable among the vegetable productions of China is the tea plant.

Of

Tea Plant.] This plant, though it affords us a daily beverage, is but imperfectly known to Europeans. In their descriptions of it naturalists differ. It is not exactly known, whether the different kinds of tea sold in Europe, under various names, be produced by the same shrub, or by shrubs of different kinds. Leaving these uncertainties, it appears to be generally agreed, that the tea plant is found in China, Japan, and Tonquin; and it is not certain that it grows spontaneously in any other part. It is said to grow to the height of five or six feet, some say, to the height of ten or twelve. The leaves are about an inch and a half in length, tapering to a point, and indented upon the edges. They have a strong resemblance to those of the sweet-brier, and are of a dark green colour. The flowers resemble a wild white rose. The branches are numerous and irregular. The wood is hard, and of a whitish green colour. The fruit, which is small, contains several round blackish seeds; but the only valuable part of the plant is the leaves. The tea-tree grows in many parts of China; but it is said to be found in greatest perfection between 30° and 45° N. lat. It grows wild, but is much improved by careful culture. The soil upon which it is planted is said greatly to affect the quality of the tea. That which is produced upon a clay soil is of the worst quality; that which grows in a light soil is better; and the best is reared in rocky situations.