T ORPEDO, an underwater weapon used in naval warfare for the purpose of destroying enemy vessels. Its name is derived from the Latin torpere, meaning to be asleep, or numb, and is an ironic reference to the "putting to sleep" of an opponent. In several wars within recent years the effectiveness of torpedoes has been demonstrated, but never before with such dreadful and deadly certainty as in the War of the Nations, which began in 1914. It was the cruelest weapon of that war, and to meet the demands for an instrument of the highest efficiency it was improved within two years by the German naval establishment from a comparatively small, though powerful, device to an undersea terror which weighs a ton and a half; in its evolution the cost rose from about $3,000 to over $8,000 for the largest sizes. When considered from the viewpoint of dimensions, it is the most complicated and the costliest piece of mechanism ever devised to kill men and to destroy property. The Wonders of the Invention. The inventive genius of man would seem to have reached the apex of achievement in the torpedo of the present day. At a depth of eight or ten feet below the surface of the ocean it travels as fast as the speed of a passenger train, and this requires a powerful engine, or motor, intricate in detail. If it sinks too low in the water it will pass harmlessly beneath its target; if it rises so high that it advances along on the surface much of its force on explosion is lost into the air. It must therefore possess mechanical means of maintaining a certain level. It must also be so constructed that it will keep a straight course ahead and not be deflected from it; this is accomplished by means of a gyroscope, which will bring it back to its course. In the head of the torpedo there must be an explosive charge powerful enough to tear a hole in the massive steel sides of great merchant vessels or of the mightiest warships. When these necessary elements are considered, it is evident that a modern topedo is an oddly-formed ship which conducts itself with almost human intelligence, and which runs itself, stabilizes itself and guides itself, but without the touch of man after he has dispatched it on its mission. The most powerful type of torpedo is the Whitehead, and this is the one which has been very generally adopted by all navies. It is about twenty-two inches in diameter and is twenty feet long. It is a harmless-looking, spindle-shaped tube of thin steel, with a tail, but with nothing to suggest the wonderful mechanism and deadly explosive inside of it. How It Is Operated. Most torpedoes are propelled by compressed-air engines; some have been equipped with electric motors, although of the latter variety very few have been made. There are several compartments in a torpedo, and they screw into each other and form one rigid shell. At the front is the deadly section of the whole device. All after parts are there only to propel the tip of the torpedo against its distant target. The charge cone of the early models held only about fifteen pounds of explosive, but the present models sometimes contain 250 pounds of it. Guncotton is nearly always used, in a moist state. The fuse which ignites the explosive is connected with a tube of dry guncotton. The instant the plunger at the tip of the torpedo strikes a solid object it explodes the charge. Back of the charge of explosive is a compartment containing compressed air; it has a capacity varying from 10,000 to 20,000 cubic feet enough to provide motive power to send the torpedo six miles. The next chamber contains the machinery-the large motor which operates the screws, or propellers, and a smaller motor which controls the depth rudders. This chamber is the only one which is not water-tight; it is pierced with small holes to admit water, and this keeps the engine cool. In the rear compartment is the gyroscope, without which not one torpedo in a dozen would hit its mark, for it keeps the instrument of death straight ahead on its course. There are twin screws, and these turn in opposite directions. Two hollow shafts connect them with the engine, and through the shafts the spent air from the engine escapes into the water. Thus is the cause of the bubbles and consequent white track so clearly discernible in the wake of the speeding torpedo. A torpedo may be fired from below the water line or from a height of several feet above it. When fired from above, a cannon tube is used, charged with sufficient powder to project the torpedo into the water. After reaching the water it sinks to the depth of six to eight feet and proceeds towards its destination under its own power. Submarine vessels can launch a torpedo only under the water, either from a shuttle tube which closes at once after the torpedo passes from it, or from a cradle fixed to the side of the vessel. In firing by the latter means the motor is put in motion by a device from the interior of the vessel and this starts the torpedo on its mission. The first method has almost entirely superseded the latter. The most powerful torpedo can travel about six miles, with a speed of nearly thirty miles an hour, before its power is exhausted. If it be adjusted for shorter distances it can race through the water at the rate of about forty miles an hour for a distance of two or three miles; this gives it a forward movement of about sixty feet every second. Submarines rarely fire at an enemy at a greater distance than a mile, and they attempt to get closer than half a mile to their victims. Within 700 or 1,000 yards there is a fair chance of scoring a hit; at a mile or a mile and a half the chances are slight, while beyond two miles scarcely ever will a torpedo find its mark. A Controlled Torpedo. The above description relates entirely to the class of torpedoes uesd by all nations up to the end of the year 1917. It has been the hope of many inventors to produce a device by which a torpedo could be sent in any desired direction, thus vastly lessening the chances of a failure in an attack. During the year 1917 it was announced, without attempt at proof and without a public trial, that a means of control by electricity had been discovered. A wireless system, it was claimed, will positively send the torpedo in any desired direction, and its course can be changed at will. The inventor is John Hayes Hammond, Jr., an American who has achieved a reputation as an electrical expert. Whether the invention has been withdrawn for further improvements or whether it has been taken in charge by the government is not known. Historical. In 1585 an Italian engineer blew up an enemy's bridge at Antwerp by floating down the Scheldt a small vessel loaded with powder, which was exploded by clockwork mechanism. The next recorded experiment was nearly 150 years later, when a Frenchman exploded under water several rockets bearing heavy charges of powder and destroyed two small vessels. An American, David Bushnell, was the first man to devise a torpedo which could be called the forerunner of the present type. It was necessary to attach it to the vessel to be blown up, and this necessitated a so-called submarine torpedo (j) Submergence valve LENGTHWISE SECTION (k) Superheater TORPEDO boat-not a vessel of the present submarine type, however, but a globular affair, holding one man, and intended only as a device to put the operator in close proximity to the vessel to which the torpedo was to be attached. It was a clumsy expedient, and very dangerous. The first of the modern torpedoes intended to be projected through the water carried no engine. They were tapered wooden contrivances with an explosive head, and were shot at their target at not over one-fourth mile. This early weapon called for small, fleet vessels which could get close to the enemy without detection, and the torpedo boat of the last quarter of the nineteenth century was called into existence. In maneuvering for position from which to strike it was expected that one or more of these boats would be destroyed by gunfire before one of them could launch a torpedo which would find its mark. The torpedo-boat destroyer was evolved to cope with the torpedo boat; this was also a small vessel, speedier than the torpedo boat, and it performed good service in keeping the latter away from large vessels of a fleet. The destroyers also carried torpedoes, which they could use effectively against the torpedo boats. To-day both classes of vessels are obsolete, for the submarine, with its effective mechanical torpedo, has come and has demonstrated its power; so long as it can run submerged no class of vessels can subdue it. Its most effective foe is a fleet, staunch vessel of light weight called a "submarine chaser," which can speed over the water at forty miles an hour and deliver a shot at a submarine before the latter can submerge beyond the danger line. The present Whitehead torpedo was invented by an English engineer of that name, soon after the American War of Secession. E.D.F. Consult Armstrong's Torpedoes and Torpedo Vessels (1910). TORPEDO, or ELECTRIC RAY, a fish of the ray family, found in warm seas, so called because it can discharge electricity from special organs lying in the head and gill region. Its body is flat and broad, dark above and white below, and ends in a slender tail. The torpedo uses its strange power to kill small fish for food; in a full-grown, healthy fish the current is powerful enough to disable a man. After discharging electricity the fish is temporarily exhausted, and needs rest and nourishment before it can repeat the act. How the electric organs become charged is unknown. See ELECTRICAL FISH. 5843 TORQUEMADA TORPEDO BOAT, a vessel equipped to make the torpedo its principal weapon of attack. The object of such a vessel in warfare is swiftly to approach the slower battleship, deliver a torpedo attack and escape, if possible. Torpedo boats have been rendered of less value than they formerly possessed because of the perfection of the submarine and of their successor, the torpedo-boat destroyer. They are made entirely of steel, with light plates of one-sixteenth to three-eighths inch in thickness, and for defense rely principally on the speed with which they can run away from their enemies. The main object of the torpedo boat is to get near enough to discharge its torpedoes under cover of fog, storm or night, and retire before it can be reached by the big guns of the enemy's ships, which would sink it almost instantly. Torpedo boats are fitted with one, two, and sometimes four tubes or guns from which torpedos may be fired, and these tubes are arranged so that discharge may be made in any direction. Being specially constructed for the purpose and too light to carry protective armor of great weight, the torpedo boat carries its coal in such a manner as to afford added protection to the vital parts of the vessel. Such a vessel requires from 150 to 240 men to navigate and operate it. The introduction of torpedo boats was followed by torpedo-boat destroyers, whose duty it was by their still greater speed and strength to pursue and capture or destroy the torpedo boats before they could deliver their attacks. Their ability to do this also proved their own fitness to deliver torpedo attacks, and the building of torpedo boats practically ceased. Many hundreds of them are yet in commission in the navies of the world. See TORPEDO. TORQUEMADA, tohr ka mah' thah, TOMAS DE (1420-1498), an inquisitor-general of Spain. He was born at Valladolid, and became a friar preacher in the Dominican convent in that city. For twenty-two years he held the priorship of the convent at Segovia, and was confessor to Isabella, afterward queen of Spain. In 1479 the Inquisition was established in Spain; Torquemada was made assistant to the inquisitors, and in 1483 inquisitor-general over all Spanish possessions. Not only for religious reasons, but for political considerations, also, he was extremely zealous, for he felt that the suppression of heretics was the only way to bring about the political unity of Spain. He was inquisitor-general for fifteen years, and during that time sen tenced to death over 10,000 persons. His severity was rebuked by the Pope, and he had frequently to send embassies to Rome to defend his methods. He took part in the expulsion of the Moors from Spain, and was largely instrumental in driving the Jews from the country. The Jews had been the most flourishing commercial class of Spain, and the loss to the country was inestimable. Torquemada was intensely unpopular, and never dared appear in public without a strong guard. TORRENS, tahr' enz, SYSTEM, a system of registering titles to real estate, devised by Sir Robert Torrens, who introduced it into South Australia in 1858. The system rapidly gained favor in the other colonies, and by 1874 was in use in each of the colonies of Australia, in Tasmania and in New Zealand. It has since been introduced into Canada and other British colonies, the United States and many of the countries of Europe. The purpose of the system is twofold: (1) To make the transfer of landed property as simple and safe as that of other property. (2) To do away with the repeated examination of titles. The system is operated through a bureau or court of registration in charge of a registrar, with whom in most cases is associated an examiner of titles. Getting the First Torrens Title. The first step towards having one's land registered consists in filing with the registrar a petition for registration. With the petition the applicant must file all records in his possession relating to the title. He must also give in writing under oath a statement of all encumbrances; that is, of debts secured by mortgage or liens, and of all delinquent taxes. These papers are referred to the examiner of titles, who proceeds to verify them. If other persons are interested in the property by marriage or otherwise, the law requires the registrar to notify them of the petition and give them an opportunity for a hearing. In short, everything possible is done to learn all the facts bearing upon the title under consideration. When this work is completed the examiner of titles makes his report to the registrar. The Certificate. If the registrar is satisfied that the title is perfect he files away all the old papers and issues a certificate which declares that the land is the property of the registered owner, subject only to the encumbrances described on the certificate. The certificate must be signed by the registrar. It is issued in dupli cate, the official copy being filed in the office of the registrar and the other being given to the owner. The official certificate becomes the title of ownership and is indefeasible; that is, it cannot be set aside or overcome. In case of transfer of the property no further examination of the title is necessary, but it is always wise to inquire of the registrar whether any notices of encumbrances have been received and not registered. The first certificate is cancelled and a new one issued, and this completes the transaction. Insurance Fund. In case an interest in the property is found, or a just claim to it arises which was not discovered at the time the certificate was issued, the holder cannot be dispossessed of the property, but the holder of such an interest or claim may be paid from a fund created for that purpose by a small assessment on the property at the time of each registration. The rate varies in different states and countries, but it is usually one-tenth of one per cent on the valuation. United States. The first Torrens act in the United States was passed by the legislature of Illinois in 1895. The act was declared unconstitutional by the supreme court of the state because it conferred judicial powers upon the registrar and examiner of titles. In 1897 another law was passed without these objectionable features. From time to time the system has been introduced into other states, but the progress has been slow owing to the complicated systems in the older states, which seem difficult to replace. Since each state has its own system of registering titles the Torrens acts vary in different states as to minor points, but they are uniform respecting their main features. In Canada. A system of land registration based upon the Torrens system was adopted by Vancouver Island in 1861. When Vancouver became a part of British Columbia in 1866 this system was continued over the entire province. The system is the only one used in Alberta and Saskatchewan and is in very general use in Manitoba; it went into effect in Nova Scotia in 1907. The Ontario law adopted in 1885 is based on the English Land Act of 1875, and provides for three grades of certificates-absolute, qualified and possessory. W.F.R. Consult Cameron's The Torrens System; Thom's The Canadian Torrens System. TORRICELLI, tahr re chel'le, EVANGELISTA (1608-1647), an Italian scientist, famous for the discovery of the law of the barometer. (For explanation and illustration of this law, see TORRINGTON BAROMETER, page 597.) Torricelli was Galileo's assistant during the last three months of the philosopher's career, and on Galileo's death he succeeded him as professor of philosophy and mathematics at Florence. He improved the microscope and telescope, and made several important discoveries in mathematics and physics. In 1908 the tercentenary of Torricelli's birth was celebrated in Italy. TORRINGTON, tahr'ing tun, CONN., a town in the northwestern part of the state, in Litchfield County, thirty-five miles west of Hartford and 107 miles northeast of New York City. It is on the Naugatuck River and has transportation facilities over the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad and interurban lines. The area is about two and a half square miles. The chief features of the place are Coe Memorial Park, the Federal building, a Y. M. C. A. building, public library and Hungerford Memorial Hospital. The manufactures are varied and include brass, machinery, needles, automobile accessories, hardware, woolen goods and marine engines. Settled about 1737, Torrington, named for Torrington, England, was incorporated as a town in 1740 and chartered as a borough in 1887. It was the birthplace of John Brown. Population in 1910, 16,840; in 1916, 19,597 (Federal estimate). TORSION, tawr'shun, BALANCE, an instrument for measuring very small forces. It consists of a horizontal bar, a, suspended by a thread of silk or other substance, b, so that it will balance. Threads of quartz q are most generally used for the purpose. The upper end of the thread is attached to a graduated head, c, by whose rotation the intensity of the force is measured. F.M.J. -a TORSION BALANCE Explanation of the figure appears in the text. The operation of this balance may be illustrated in the measurement of an electric current. The two balls, d at the end of the bar, and e at the end of the rod f, are in the position shown in the illustration, and the pointer on the graduated disk is at 0°. The balls are then charged and the electricity forces them apart. By looking through the telescope, h, one may see their divergence in the mirror, g. The graduated head is then turned until the torsion (twisting) of the thread is sufficient to bring the balls back to their former position. By previous testing the force exerted upon the thread by a complete rotation of the graduated head is known, so that the force exerted by any number of degrees may be readily determined. See GALVANOMETER. TORT, tawrt, a legal term derived from the Latin torquere, meaning to twist, or wrest aside. It has been defined by various authorities as a private or civil wrong or injury independent of contract, a breach of a legal duty, and a violation of anyone's right to personal security, to liberty, to property or to reputation. The chief distinction between a tort and a breach of contract is that the former involves a greater degree of moral guilt, though there are cases in which action could be brought on either ground. For example, a person who buys a ticket of a railroad virtually enters into a contract with the road whereby he is guaranteed a certain amount of safety. If one of its employees attacks him, the injured passenger can sue for damages on the ground of assault (an action in tort) and also for breach of contract for transportation. Tort differs from crime in that the latter is an offense against the state and not the individual. Torts is the term used to designate the branch of law which treats of the redress of injuries not classified as crimes or as breaches of contract. In this branch are included slander, libel, trespass, alienation of affection, nuisance and negligence. Related Subjects. In connection with this subject the reader should consult the following: Assault and Battery Contract Crime Libel Negligence Nuisance Slander Trespass TORTOISE, tawr' tus, or tawr' tis, a group of reptiles belonging to the same order as the turtles, but distinguished from the latter in that they live on the land. They have short, unwebbed toes, and the hind feet, which are clubshaped, suggest an elephant's when the tortoise is walking. The upper part of the shell, or carapace, is heavy and highly arched, and is firmly joined to the under part at the sides of |