have acted as a restraint. It is evident that prevention of fires from this source can only be effected by the establishment and enforcement of rigid rules or laws by the State itself. Fires should not be set for these purposes at any time of the year except under permit from a forest officer of the State. It is not sufficient to restrict the burning to certain seasons, for the uncertain character of the weather makes it impossible to fix by dates any season within which burning may or may not be safely done.

DISPOSAL OF SLASH

The question of the most practicable method of eliminating the fire hazard caused by the large amount of inflammable material left on the ground after lumbering operations has, within recent years, received the careful attention of foresters, lumbermen, and owners of timberland the country over. That there is a great danger from this source will be admitted by all. If the mass of debris were removed, the greater part of the danger would be removed with it; but under most circumstances the cost of such an operation would be prohibitive. The problem resolves itself into the following factors: The importance of the fire risk, depending upon the location of the cut-over area, the amount of brush left on the ground, the character of the timber which remains standing, the condition of the forest floor, as regards the quantity of duff or humus in which fire would spread, and last, but by no means least, the cost of the various methods of disposing of the slash. The methods best suited to the conditions must be determined by balancing the fire risk and the cost of protective

measures.

In the more open coniferous forests of the West, experience has shown that it is practicable to cut off all lateral branches from the trunk of the tree when it is felled and collect these branches in small piles. Then, when weather conditions are favorable, such as after the first fall of snow in the winter, these piles may be burned. The cost of piling and burning under ordinary conditions ranges from ten to fifty cents per thousand board feet of timber cut. When weather conditions are favorable the burning may be carried on while lumbering operations are in progress.

The cost of the work is reduced by this method, but the risk is much greater than in the first method.

In the dense forests, characteristic of the mountain regions of New York State, where the land is seldom cut clean and where the soil is of a vegetable character, the conditions are usually such as to render burning impracticable. Even though the piles of brush be burned at the most favorable time, there is bound to be considerable damage done to the surrounding young growth. The method of lopping or cutting off all lateral branches from the top which is left on the ground, ensures the rapid decay of the branches and of the top itself. To secure the best results all lateral branches on both the upper and lower sides of the trunk, must be cut off, so that the branches and the trunk itself will lie close to the ground. If the brush is scattered when it is lopped, so that there are no large piles, all branches will lie close to the ground. and their decomposition will be still more rapid. The comparatively moist ground and weather conditions common to the forest regions of this State, make this method especially advisable. Furthermore, the custom of utilizing the timber in the trunk of a tree up to a very small diameter, leaves only a small crown which will not greatly increase the fire hazard if carefully lopped. The cost of lopping by competent men, is from fifteen to twenty-five cents per thousand board feet of timber cut.

There is no doubt in the minds of observant men that the lopping of tops induces a more rapid decay of the brush, and thus tends to reduce the fire danger after three or four years from the time of the lumbering operation. Neither can there be any logical refutation of the statement that it is much easier to fight fire on an area where the tops have been lopped, than on one where they have not been so treated. In clearing a line around the fire the loose branches may be picked up and tossed to one side without the use of an axe, while a large amount of "swamping" is necsesary where the ground is covered with unlopped tops.

It has been argued that on account of the dense mass of inflammable material close to the ground, a forest fire will at all times of the year become hotter and will damage the soil to a greater extent on areas where the tops have been lopped. Careful examination of this point, as applied to spring fires at least, does

not seem to bear out this claim. The fact remains, moreover, that where tops have been lopped, the fire risk is rapidly decreasing after the first two or three years, while unlopped tops, propped off the ground on their lower branches, usually remain dry and inflammable for fifteen years or more.

In this connection we have discussed only the lopping of the tops of coniferous or "softwood" trees. As a rule the limbs and branches of the hardwoods decay much more rapidly than do those of the coniferous species, but in spite of this fact, the rapid increase in hardwood lumbering which has taken place within the past few years, makes the solution of the problem of hardwood slash disposal imperative. In operations where the tops are fully utilized for acid wood, there is very little material left on the ground. The fire hazard may be greatly reduced by the introduction, in connection with a hardwood logging operation, of a chemical or acid plant, which will use only large defective trees and the otherwise unmerchantable portions of trees felled for lumber.

FIRE FIGHTING

So far in these pages no mention has been made of the work of fire fighting. We have considered the various classes and kinds of forest fires, the damage which they do, the causes from which they originate, and the preventive measures to which we may resort to eliminate those causes so far as possible. A system of patrol with its aids has been outlined. Methods for the prompt detection of fires and the facilities necessary to provide for the securing of fire fighters have been considered. We come now to the matter of the actual fighting of the fire after it has been discovered.

ORGANIZATION OF THE FIRE FIGHTING CREW

Each member of the patrol force should be so familiar with his territory that when he learns of a fire in a certain locality, he can tell at once where to get men and tools to fight the fire, and how to get them to the point of attack in the shortest time.

If the fire is a small one, the ranger himself will be able to extinguish it. If, however, the indications are that it covers a considerable area, he will do well to make provision for a number of fire fighters. It is better to get to a fire with too many men than

with too few. It should always be borne in mind that the time to attack a fire is when it starts, and that the loss of a few minutes at that time may mean hours or even days of work later, not to mention the loss of property caused by the fire, should it attain large proportions.

Here is where the fire fighting experience and knowledge of the nature of forest fires which the ranger may have will stand him in good stead. He will need to know that:

1. Fire travels much faster uphill than down.

2. It travels rapidly before the wind, but only slowly against it. 3. A large amount of inflammable material on the ground means a hot fire which cannot be approached closely.

4. The severity of the fire depends largely upon the character of the timber.

5. The hotter the fire the farther away from it the fire line will have to be started.

6. Fires, and the winds which accompany them, die down at night and spring up again in the forenoon. Evening and early morning are the best times to attack fires, and the crew should be so organized that the maximum number of men will be available for work at these times.

The ranger in charge must pick out some lines within which he thinks it possible to control the fire. Roads, trails, streams, swamps, railroads, fire lines, or topographic features may give him the opportunity to make a stand. If the flames cross his first line of attack, he must be prepared to fall back at once and start a new one, and so on, frequently again and again, until the fire is finally checked.

As soon as it becomes advisable for a ranger to employ extra help, he must begin to consider the question of organization, in order that he may secure the highest possible degree of efficiency from his men. He must see that arrangements are made for feeding and lodging his crew in the immediate vicinity of the fire. Fire fighting is arduous labor at best, and it is impossible for men to do their best work on the fire line if they have to walk long distances to and from work. The ranger should have provisions and a camp outfit sent in to the fire from the nearest available source.