during the revolution war, exceedingly laborious and responsible.

The first committee to undertake the foreign business of the country was instituted in November 275. It was a secret committee, and called the committee of "foreign correspondence." Subsequently, it was called the committee of foreign affairs, and was provided with a secretary. This committee did a great deal of work; they had the management of all the foreign correspondence, then voluminous, and of all negotiations, particularly those that led to the treaties with France and Holland.* But the evils and great inconveniences of this mode of conducting the delicate, complicated, and very difficult transactions, in which the United States were engaged with other nations, a description of business daily accumulating in amount, were soon felt and will readily be perceived. The committee was abolished in January '81, and an office called the " Department of Foreign Affairs" established in its place. The necessity of this change is well explained in the preamble to the report, made on the

occasion.

"The extent and rising power of these United States, entitle them to a place among the great potentates of Europe, while our political and commercial interests point out the propriety of cultivating with them a friendly correspondence and connexion. That, to render such an intercourse advantageous, the necessity of a com

* One of the greatest difficulties consisted in the safe conveyance of letters during the war. We had neither packet boats, nor regular channels of conveyance. In order to avoid suspicion a general direction, in regard to the form of letters and addresses, was given in these words:

"When you write to me, please to write upon common post paper, to fold your letters as nearly in the size and after the manner of this as may be to seal them with wafers instead of wax, and to send them by the way of Holland to the care of Mr. Adams, or to Messrs. De Neufville and Son, or Messrs. Ingraham and Bromfield of Amsterdam, and to be careful not to swell them unnecessarily above the size of common mercantile letters. If these particulars are not attended to, all the precautions, I can take, will not keep them out of the hands of the ministry."

petent knowledge of the interests, views, relation and systems of those potentates is obvious. That a knowledge in its nature so comprehensive is only to be acquired by a constant attention to the state of Europe, and an unremitted application to the means of acquiring well grounded information. That Congress are, moreover, called upon to maintain with our ministers at foreign courts a regular correspondence, and to keep them fully informed of every circumstance and event, which regards the public honour, interest and safety. Whereupon, Resolved, that an office be forthwith established for the department of foreign affairs, to be kept always in the place, where Congress shall reside. That there shall be a Secretary for the despatch of the business of the said office, to be styled "Secretary for Foreign Affairs." That it shall be the duty of the said Secretary to keep and preserve all the books and papers belonging to the department of foreign affairs, to receive and report the applications of all foreigners, to correspond with the ministers of the United States at foreign courts, and with the ministers of foreign powers, and other persons for the purpose of obtaining the most extensive and useful information, relative to foreign affairs to be laid before Congress, when required, also to transmit such communications, as Congress shall direct, to the ministers of these United States and others at foreign courts and in foreign countries; the Secretary shall have liberty to attend Congress, that he may be better informed of the affairs of the United States, and have an opportunity of explaining his reports respecting his department."

In the following year the style of this officer was altered. He was called "Secretary to the United States of America for the department of foreign affairs," and was allowed 4000 dollars, exclusive of the expenses of his office. Robert R. Livingston of New-York was the first Secretary of State; he was chosen in August '81, but having resigned in June '83, John Jay, at that time in Europe, was elected to succeed him. Mr. Jay remained in office till the adoption of the constitution. This office was not expressly recognised by the confederation; no provision having been made in that instrument for establishing by name this or any other department, but it was enacted by a resolution, as the present department of state has been subsequently created by a

law of Congress. The institution of these departments was authorized by the 9th article of the confederation" the power to appoint such civil officers as may be necessary for managing the general affairs of the United States." This office was the foundation of the present department of State, established, by law in '89, no provision having been made for it in the constitution, (except the general one under article 1. sec. 8. provision 17.) It was originally called the "Department of Foreign Affairs," and the officer, the "Secretary for the Department of Foreign Affairs," terms subsequently altered to "Department of State," and "Secretary of State." The duties of this officer have not materially varied in consequence of the change of government. The Secretary of State now forms one of the Cabinet, and in the whole conduct of that department, receives his instructions from the President. No arrangement having been made by Congress for the appointment of this officer, the President exercises the right, conferred on him in other cases, of making a nomination in the usual form to the Senate. He has also under a construction of the constitution (now admitted,) the right of removing this officer, or the head of any other department at his pleasure. The law of '89 is considered as having settled this important point. The bill did not pass without an able and earnest opposition, but as the clause giv ing the power of removal to the President, was stricken out, the appearance, even of conferring this right upon him by the Legislature, was removed, and it could be regarded as a quality only incident, under construction, to the right of nomination, as it regards all superior officers of the United States, "whose appointments" were "not otherwise provided for." The salary of the Secretary of State is now 6000 dollars. Of late years various matters have been referred to the examination, or the management of this officer, that do not in strictness belong to the Department of Foreign Affairs; for the duties of this department are not so specific, or easily defined, as those of either of the others. This circumstance has produced an accumulation of business, and it is probable the government will find it necessary to create a

fifth department, for the purpose of relieving the Secretary of State of all those affairs that do not properly belong to the Army, Navy, or Treasury. This might well be called the department of domestic affairs, or home department, perhaps a more significant and convenient name.

DIPLOMATIC CORPS.

The United States have never sent or received an "ambassador," in the usual diplomatic sense of that term. Indeed, the form of our government appears entirely to forbid it, while we confine ourselves to the European meaning of the rank. An ambassador has a representative character;he represents the person and dignity of his sovereign. "The preeminence of ambassadors manifests itself chiefly in the particular ceremonial of their reception in the country, where they are appointed to reside. They are entitled to speak at the audiences they obtain, with heads covered,—to keep a canopy or throne in their dwellings," &c. An ambassador is, of course, often employed to manage the affairs of his nation like other public ministers, but his representative character of the honour and dignity of the sovereign, constitutes in his particular case, a minister of the first rank. This latter quality an American minister cannot well possess, for he represents nothing but the nation. The government, it is true, has a right to require that ministers shall be received from them of the rank of ambassadors, but the distinction will obviously depend upon something different from the representation of the person of the sovereign. The English, we believe, are not much in the habit of employing ambas

*The Congress of 1783 introduced a slight difference in the ceremonial of receiving an ambassador. He was allowed to sit covered in their presence, and the President rose not only when he was introduced, but also when he read his address. Ministers did not enjoy these privileges.

sadors; most of their ministers being envoys, with full powers. But there are certain courts in Europe to which it seems to be a sort of etiquette to send an ambassador. The sovereigns of the House of Bourbon, (France, Spain, and the two Sicilies) are usually represented at their respective capitals by a minister of this rank.

Difficulties, having arisen from the claims of ministers on the score of precedence, we find in the Recueil des Pièces officielles, (Tom. 8. No. 17.) an arrangement, signed by the eight powers,* parties to the treaties of 1814-1815 on this subject. As it is quite short, and is now probably adopted in most of the European courts, we take this opportunity of translating it; the provisions appear just; they are at least very convenient.

"ART. 1. Diplomatic agents are divided into three classes. 1. Ambassadors, Legates, or Nuncios. 2. Envoys, Ministers and other agents accredited by the Sovereigns. 3. Chargés d'Affaires, accredited by the Department of Foreign Relations.

"ART. 2. Ambassadors, Legates, or Nuncios, are alone invested with a representative character.

"ART. 3. Diplomatic agents sent on a mission extraordinary, are not entitled, on this account, to a superior rank.

"ART. 4. Diplomatic agents of the respective classes take rank according to the date of the official notice of their arrival. The representatives of the Pope are not affected by this article.

"ART. 5. Each State shall determine upon an uniform mode of receiving diplomatic agents of the different classes.

"ART. 6. Neither relationship nor family or political alliances between courts confer rank upon their agents.

"ART. 7. The order in which the signatures of Ministers shall be placed in acts or treaties between several powers, that allow of the alternat, shall be determined by lot."

During the confederation, the public officers of the United States abroad were called, either Chargés d'Affaires, Commissioners, or Ministers Plenipotentiary. We are not aware

* Austria, Spain, France, Great Britain, Portugal, Prussia, Russia and Sweden.