last-named who require him most urgently. From whatever cause this may arise, it is indubitably true; and it would be no difficult matter to prove by ample illustrations that the weekly homily and the printed discourse often betray utter carelessness or extreme ignorance of grammatical structure. With such facts, a knowledge of their cause and cure becomes vitally important.

To some extent individuals are themselves to blame for such educational deficiencies. Neglect of careful and considerate study results in error in the commonest subjects as well as in those demanding less frequent attention. A man may care so little for a knowledge of arithmetic as to forget in time the simplest problems. The necessities of social life prevent a disuse so complete of artificial language; yet the most incessant scribbler will attain small proficiency without some remembrance of, and reference to, his English grammar.

More blame, however, is to be attached to the imperfect and fragmentary character of grammatical tuition. For a great number of years the only grammars in use have been those of Lindley Murray, William Lennie, and their respective imitators. Attempts to systematize the subject, and, to reduce it to a logical and philosophical form, have been very rare, and when done, very unsatisfactory. A compilation of arbitrary rules, without apparent sequence; a number of ill-digested exercises, with explanations almost paradoxical, long formed the chief ingredients of grammar. No effort to treat the subject reasonably was deemed necessary; but compilations were made with a view to easy division into lessons which scholars could learn to repeat by rote. Lennie certainly made a step in the right direction. He simplified definitions; avoided the introduction of much extraneous and useless matter; and presented the rules of syntax with greater clearness and brevity. But very much more required to be done. It is not enough to teach the rules which enable a pupil to speak and write' his native language with propriety. Instruction in grammar which does not embrace the theory and practice of composition is of little use. It is not possible to teach the principles of grammar intelligibly without commencing and proceeding on a clear and definite perception of their intimate relation to the structure of language. These facts were long overlooked, or, perhaps to speak more correctly, not understood; and as the result we have now to regret the innumerable deficiencies of grammatical authorship. Dr. Latham, in the preface to his 'Elementary Grammar,' thus broadly condemns the kind of material offered for scholastic use :-'I have no hesitation in asserting, that, out of every hundred statements made by the current writers on the English language, ninetynine come under one of the two following predicaments: they

either contain that which is incorrect, and better not known at all, or something that was known before, and would have been known independent of any grammatical lesson whatever.' (p. 6.)

Strong as this language appears it is only too just, and needs no confirmation to those practically interested in tuition. It may be remarked as somewhat singular that we are incomparably better supplied with good elementary works for the study of foreign and dead languages than for acquiring a sound knowledge of our own. The literature of France, Germany, Greece, or Rome, may be mastered by systematic and philosophic means of the highest and best kind. Not so our mother-tongue. A student may (and in numberless instances does) write Latin prose or verse with faultless correctness, nay, even with elegance, who is quite unable to analyze a simple proposition in his own tongue; and it is not too much to affirm, that the kind of grammatical education most commonly afforded in schools is simply a mockery.

It is gratifying to think that such a state of things is in process of improvement;-that we are receiving (slowly, it is true) philosophical. contributions of real intrinsic value. Mr. Mulligan's work is a welcome addition to our very scanty store of such desirable books.

The treatise opens with an 'Introduction,' designed to convey preliminary information respecting language generally, as a means of communication,-its subdivision into natural and artificial or articulate; the province of the grammarian; and the origin of the laws of grammar, with some observations upon 'Theories of the origin of Language.' Most writers set out by attempting to define grammar in a single sentence. Our author, however, saves himself much trouble, and avoids all absurdity, by his lucid introductory remarks, from which he says,- The reader will be prepared to find that words the classification of words, the modification or changes of form which words undergo in order to express a modified meaning, and, especially, the laws or principles whieh regulate the combination of words for the purpose of expressing thought, form the subject matter of the following pages.' (pp. 5, 6.)

The book is then divided into chapters, in which every paragraph is numbered for convenient reference; and appendices are attached to some of the chapters, where further explanation or remark is needed. At the end of the book, Mr. Mulligan has added two chapters, one on punctuation, and one on versification; the first of value, inasmuch as it may help in adjusting the yet uncertain system of punctuation (if system it may be called); the second, we should suppose with the intention of making the work more complete, and following the example of other writers

on grammar, but scarcely worth the trouble of preparation. In saying this, we would not be understood as rating Mr. Mulligan's article below those of others; having read it carefully, we willingly bear testimony to its superiority; but in our opinion, versification, as it is barely styled, requires greater attention, and more intelligent treatment than has yet been bestowed upon it. The forms assumed by the 'spirit of poetry,' in itself one of the noblest developments of human genius, deserve, and in this prolific age demand, a more complete exposition than we remember to have seen attempted.

The filling up of the entire work, in the eleven chapters which comprise the Grammar,' properly so called, is generally excellent both in matter and manner. Faults and objections present themselves occasionally, some of which we may briefly indicate, but on the whole, it is impossible to withhold an expression of sincere admiration. The author brings to his work a thorough acquaintance with the labours of German and English philologists; he is evidently a man of sound judgment and keen perception, and proves himself to be intimately conversant with the wants and difficulties of those engaged in the education of youth.

Chapter I. is devoted to a brief but satisfactory statement of the nature, classification, and analysis of simple propositions. It contains also an exposition of the origin and meaning' of those words which perform such important functions in language -viz., nouns and verbs. The mode in which propositions are introduced has the merit of originality, and illustrates the author's manner throughout.

We employ artificial language-1st. To assert (that is, to say, or speak) our opinions, or declare our thoughts, feelings, emotions, &c. 2nd. To question, or interrogate others in order to obtain information. 3rd. To express commands, entreaties, exhortations, &c. Distinct forms of expression are employed in discourse for these three several purposes; and though, by supplying what is suppressed in the form of the expression (because manifestly implied in the sense), we might readily reduce all questions and commands to the form of assertions, still it is convenient to consider these forms separately.

'Any combination of words which expresses an assertion, a question, a command, &c., or, more generally, any combination of words which expresses complete sense, is called a proposition. Those combinations by which an assertion, a question, a command (including entreaty, request, &c.), are expressed, may be called respectively assertive or declarative, interrogative or questioning, and imperative or commanding propositions. 'Since interchange of thought is effected through the medium of propositions, and discourse consists almost wholly of propositions of one or other of the kinds above mentioned, it follows that the chief business of the grammarian is the analysis of propositions, and the ex

planation of the manner in which words are combined to form them.' -pp. 9, 10.

Chapter II. treats of Nouns. Here, again, without attempting to define a noun in a single line, Mr. Mulligan proceeds cautiously and wisely. As he properly asserts, a complete definition of nouns ought to embrace all the functions which they perform in discourse. But as a full definition would be unmanageable in practice on account of its length, we substitute for the present one embracing only the great distinguishing function of nouns. This definition is, that nouns are words which express the subjects of propositions,' and it follows as a natural explanation, from what was advanced in the previous chapter. Nouns are then classified into concrete and abstract, to which pronouns are added as a third division. The concrete are stated to include collective nouns, and the abstract, verbal nouns. Some necessary matter follows treating of proper and common nouns, and their uses; after which the modifications of nouns by gender and number are clearly defined. Here, however, Mr. Mulligan finds it necessary to make a digression for the purpose of introducing some remarks upon the changes made in words by various modifications, and he takes occasion to treat also of sounds and letters. We cannot but feel that such an interruption might have been avoided by embodying these considerations in the introduction, or placing them immediately after it. As they at present stand, they only prevent a consecutive view of the main subject.

Chapter III. is a very full and complete dissertation upon Verbs. It contains many subdivisions, treating of Verbal Classification, Tenses, Moods, and forms of Conjugation; and we may notice a 'Synoptical Table of English Tense Forms,' which cannot fail to throw great light on this portion of grammar, whatever be the text-book employed in tuition.

The title of Chapter IV. is the Modification of the Subject and Predicate by Nouns, comprehending an examination of the Modifications of the subject noun and verb effected by the employment of complementary or modifying words. In this portion the declension of nouns and pronouns is introduced, and exhibited in a new light. The pages, indeed, which contain Mr. Mulligan's views upon the case modifications' of the subject are, in our opinion, the best portion of the book. Nearly one-half of the treatise is occupied with the two great classes of words which form the fundamental parts of every proposition -the verb and the noun,' and a careful perusal does not convey the idea that either space or labour has been thrown away. For some of his material, the author acknowledges himself indebted to German scholars; and in the chapters now noticed

their assistance must have been of immense value. Chapters V., VI., and VII., are devoted respectively to Prepositions, Adjectives, and Adverbs, classes of words of which little mention is made in other grammars. The lucid explanations given by Mr. Mulligan offer a striking contrast to the meagre definitions usually presented, showing how much may be done in the way of grammatical reformation by one thoroughly in earnest. With these chapters the examination of simple propositions concludes. Two statements are afterwards presented in a tabular form, by way of recapitulating the points separately considered. The first is a synoptical table of the forms of modification, classed in reference to the kind of words they are intended to complete; and the second is a 'summary description of the purposes served by the several modifications' thus exhibited. This résumé at this stage of the book will be found useful to all who merely read the book, but especially so to those who may use it for school purposes.

The treatment of Compound Propositions in Chapter IX. is exceedingly minute, and by its closely-sustained reasoning goes far to exhaust the subject in the present state of grammatical knowledge. Any attempt to analyse this important chapter would require greater space than can be afforded here; and we must therefore refer to the book itself, as the only fair method of rightly estimating its contents. We must nevertheless notice one good feature in the arrangement of this part of the subject. In enumerating and expounding the varieties of accessory propositions, the punctuation necessary in the construction is given with each rule and definition. By such a plan, the reason of the use of any particular point at once presents itself in immediate connexion with the meaning and analysis of the passage or proposition; a mode of teaching how to punctuate at once appropriate and intelligible.

Chapter X. treats of the Combination of Independent Propositions, introducing a new class of words, commonly named Conjunctions. Their uses and positions are amply defined and illustrated; and it will follow, from what is thus stated, that they must cease to retain a name in some cases actually falsifying their functions.

The eleventh and concluding chapter is devoted to Interjections, and Exclamatory Words and Phrases.

Imperfect as our summary of Mr. Mulligan's book necessarily is, it will suffice to justify the remark, that he has rendered excellent service to the cause of grammatical reform. His materials have been drawn from the latest and best sources, knit together with great constructive skill, and interspersed with many original and valuable disquisitions. In the portion devoted