comparatively uniform. In well-educated countries the years from 6 to 12 and from 12 to 20 are school-going years, and the relative number of persons of such ages able to read, especially of those from 12 to 20, is larger than the relative number of such persons of all ages.

Of the men who married in 1866, 59.96 per cent, and of the women 78.97 per cent, or 69.465 per cent of both sexes, signed their marriage papers with a cross. Of the total number of conscripts drawn for the army the same year, 64.01 per cent were illiterate.

The statistics showing the educational backwardness of the Kingdom at its formation become still more impressive when considered with reference to geographical distribution. Any person having a general familiarity with Italian history and current life may find matter of serious instruction in the following table. It shows most conclusively that those parts of the Kingdom were best educated where government had been best, and the people freest where industrial, commercial, and moral life were most active, where national sentiment was strongest-in a word, where modern progressive ideas had taken deepest root.

Proportion, per 100 inhabitants, of the Italian population able to read and write, or at least to read, in 1861, according to compartments.

Once more, 68.19 persons in every 100 of the male population 6 years of age and upward, and 81.27 of the females, were illiterate. From 20 years of age and upward the corresponding ratios were 65.47 and 81.52 to the 100. Such was the educational condition of Italy in 1861-the country in which the Renaissance was born and in which it attained its fullest development! Plainly, the Italians stood in need of a mental and moral regeneration. Besides, although powerful forces had been working in the direction of unity for a half century, there were also particularistic or divisive influences at work. The people of the old states needed to be welded together and be made to respond still more strongly to the national spirit. Nor could any other cause contribute so powerfully to both these ends as a really national system of education that should reach all classes and conditions of men.

THE DAWN OF THE NEW ERA.

Fortunately a new educational era was already dawning. It is an interesting fact that the Casati law, with which the new era opened, was enacted by the Sardinian parliament the very year that saw the first practical step taken in the direction of political unity. It bears the date Turin, November 13, 1859. The battles of Magenta and Solferino, which freed Lombardy from the Austrians and secured her union with Piedmont, were fought June 4 and June 24 of the same year. In 1860 Tuscany, Parma, Modena, the Roman legations, the Marches, and the two Sicilies were united with the northern provinces, and in 1861 Victor Emmanuel was proclaimed King of Italy. Venetia took her place in the new Kingdom in 1866 and Rome hers in 1870. In the meantime the system of education inaugurated in 1859, with modifications, was applied to the several provinces immediately on their becoming free and taking their places in the national system.

The fact is, however, that the law of 1859 was not an abrupt beginning of the new order of things. The following summary, prepared by another hand, reveals a long series of steps leading up to it:

MEMORABLE DATES.

1729 and 1772. Establishment of famous royal constitutions by princes of the house of Savoy, through which the control of secondary education was taken away from the religious orders, and the Collegio delle Province, with one hundred free scholarships, was established with the aim of preparing, in connection with the university, teachers qualified to give this instruction. Schools of methods were established to prepare teachers for primary schools, and with the title of Magistrato della Reforma, the germ of a well-organized council of public instruction appeared. 1786. Reorganization of rural schools in Lombardy, the decree stipulating for the schools of the poor.

1802. Sub-Alpine republics decreed that all communes should establish elementary schools.

1808. Schools reorganized in parts of Italy under French domination. Academies established at Turin, Genoa, and Pisa as integral parts of the University of France. 1813. Reorganization of public instruction in Rome.

1818. New school law promulgated in the Lombardian-Venetian kingdom, which in 1822 became the code of education for that part of Italy.

1844. Establishment of "Asili d' Infancia," infant schools, in Piedmont, which were the beginning of the well-organized school system.

1847. (Decree of November 30.) Office of minister of public instruction created. 1849. Establishment of "Società d' Instruzione e d' Educazione" in LombardyVenetia, which has been of great assistance in the organization of the present public school system.

1859. Promulgation of the "Legge Casati," or school law, named from the minister of public instruction at that date, which forms the basis of the present school system, as it provided that each commune should maintain an elementary school, that teachers should have certificates of capacity, that there should be great strictness in university examinations, etc.

1867. Religious corporations abolished and their schools classed as private. Other modifications of law of 1859 made.

1877. Instruction made obligatory for children between 6 and 9 years of age.

1878. Gymnastics placed on school programmes.

1881. Legal enactments reorganizing higher council of education and making changes in school supervision.

1886 and 1888. Legal enactments bearing upon teachers' salaries and teachers' licenses.'

As will be seen, a few dates subsequent to the Casati law are inserted in the summary.

It is instructive to note the prominence of northern Italy, and particularly of Piedmont, in this series of memorable dates.

GENERAL POLITICAL FACTS.

The area of Italy is 114,410 square miles. The population at the census of 1881, the last taken, was 28,459,628; it is now estimated at something more than 30,000,000. The Kingdom is divided for different purposes-historical, political, administrative, and judicial-in different ways. The only divisions that we need to consider are the provinces, the largest administrative divisions, of which there are 69, and the communes, the smallest, of which in 1889 there were 8,256, 3

The constitution, or statuto, granted by Charles Albert in 1848, which made Sardinia a constitutional monarchy, is to-day the fundamental law of the Kingdom of Italy. It vests the legislative power in the King, in the Senate appointed by the King from certain designated classes of persons, and the Chamber of Deputies elected by the people. It vests the executive power in the King, who reigns by the grace of God and the national will. The King exercises his executive functions. through responsible ministers. The parliamentary system prevails in practice, ministers or the Government being dependent upon the vote of the Chamber of Deputies. The provinces have each a provincial council and commission; the communes, a communal council, a municipal council, and a syndic, or mayor. Such are the general features of the Government as far as we are concerned with them.

THE CASATI LAW.

The Casati law, which took its name from M. Gabrio Casati, minister of public instruction at the time of its passage, consisted of 5 titles and 380 articles. These are the several titles: (1) The administration of public instruction; (2) Superior instruction; (3) Secondary classical instruction; (4) Technical instruction; elementary instruction.

See the Report of the Commissioner of Education for the year 1888-89, Chapter VI. Estimated as 30,724,897 on December 31, 1893.

There were 8,258 in October, 1894.

4" The Senate is composed of the princes of the royal house who are of age, and of an unlimited number of members above 40 years old, who are nominated by the King for life, a condition of the nomination being that the person should either fill a high office or have acquired fame in science, literature, or any other pursuit tending to the benefit of the nation, or finally, should pay taxes to the annual amount of 3,000 lire, or £120." (The Statesman's Yearbook, 1890.)

Article 1, however, recognizes but three branches of education: Superior, secondary classical, and technical and primary. All these subjects are dealt with comprehensively, and some of them with much detail. A closer analysis of this celebrated law is not called for, nor is it necessary to follow in order the numerous changes and modifications to which it has been subjected. My task is to describe the principal features of the existing system. Such dates as are of chief importance will be given by the way. It is, however, important to understand that this celebrated statute is the base line from which all subsequent school legislation is to be measured.

THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.

We are now to describe the various organs or authorities that exercise educational power and responsibility.

(1) All general legislation in relation to the subject is enacted by the national legislature. How the legislature has used its power so far as we are concerned with it, will appear as the exposition proceeds.

(2) The King is the supreme educational executive. His relations to the department of public instruction are not different from his relations to the other executive departments. That is, the King, subject to the laws, acts through the minister of public instruction.

(3) The minister of public instruction is a member of the cabinet, or Government, and like his fellow ministers, although appointed by the Crown, is responsible to the popular branch of the legislature. He may be considered under two aspects: He is the agent through whom the King acts in discharging those educational duties committed to him; he performs a great number of official acts that the laws devolve upon him directly.

(4) The superior council of public instruction consists of 24 ordinary and 7 extraordinary members, all appointed by the King for the term of seven years, and all persons of high competency and repute. A large majority of the councilors hold other educational appointments, as professorships in universities; but five of them must be chosen from among persons not engaged in educational work. Only the ordinary councilors receive compensation; and as most or all of these draw salaries from the Government for other services rendered, a small compensation is deemed sufficient, one that little more than covers their expenses while acting as councilors.

The superior council holds a regular meeting every six months. The minister of instruction is the president, and calls special meetings when, in his judgment, they are necessary. The minister and the council are assisted in the performance of their duties by a legal counselor, who gives advice as to the interpretation and application of the educational laws and regulations.

The superior council prepares and examines all projects of laws relating to public instruction, and renders judgment on matters regarding the instruction and administration of the schools. It examines and

presents to the minister for his approbation books and treatises for use in the public schools and the programmes of instruction. The judg ment of the council is required: (1) When the claims of aspirants to vacant professorships in the universities are to be considered; (2) when questions of competency between conflicting scholastic authorities are to be decided; and (3) when questions of scandal or failure in the discharge of duties on the part of professors of secondary and higher schools arise. At the end of every five years the superior council presents to the minister a general report of the condition of each branch of national education, with appropriate remarks and proposals. For this purpose annual reports are sent to the council by the general inspectors and by other scholastic authorities.

For the better performance of its duties, the superior council is divided into three sections, or committees, corresponding to the three branches of public instruction. Assignments to these committees are made by the minister.

The powers and duties of the committee on technical and elementary instruction should be more particularly noticed. At its head is an inspector-general, who has the assistance of 9 central or general inspectors and 69 circuit or provincial inspectors, one from every province in the Kingdom. Acting through these assistants, the inspector-general sees to it that the communes fulfill their obligations relating to education according to law, and that the elementary schools are carried on in accordance with the programmes and regulations emanating from the central authority. These inspectors are appointed by the King and must be persons who are reputed competent by reason of education, professional attainments, and moral authority to perform their responsible duties.

While the main permanent features of the central administration are as now outlined, numerous minor changes appear from time to time. These are made by the minister of instruction, the more important of them subject to the approval of the superior council. As respects these details of direction and administration, very much depends upon the minister for the time being. Mention should be made of the giunta, an executive board or committee appointed as above mentioned, which exists for its own special purposes.

In 1891 the central scholastic administration was organized as follows: The minister secretary of state.

The under secretary of state.

The cabinet, consisting of 8 persons.

The general secretary's office, consisting of 14 persons.

The superior council of instruction, consisting of 32 members.

The board (giunta) of the superor council, 14 in number.

The secretary's office of the superior council, comprising 3 persons.

The general direction of antiquities and fine arts, consisting of 28 persons. This committee has charge of openings and excavations of antiquities, museums, pinacoteche, galleries, the preservation of monuments, academies and institutes of fine arts, rewards and subsidies for artists, artistic congresses, expositions of fine arts, societies for the promotion of fine arts, the schools of recitation, conservatories and institutes of music.