A determined effort is being made to enforce compulsory education throughout the Empire, and the school officials of several of the gov ernments have been called to St. Petersburg to discuss the probabilities of such enforcement in their own special divisions. In the governments of Charkow, Poltawa, Kursk, and Woronesch it has been decided by the curators of school circuits to enforce obligatory attendance from the beginning of 1895-96.

An effort is being made to carry out the suggestions of the congress for the study of technical and industrial education, so that village industries may be increased and the instruction of the people in the outlying governments of Russia may be better suited to the needs of the rural populations. The authorities and citizens naturally hope to advance the interests of the villagers and to still further develop manual training in the schools of the Empire. At present manual training1 is taught in 4 teachers' colleges, 15 seminaries for teachers, 6 civil gymnasiums and schools, in 18 military colleges, in 11 temporary manual training courses for teachers, and in about 150 town schools and village elementary schools. According to the opinion of the Russian pedagogue, manual training "must be taught in a thoroughly systematic manner; it must awaken the interest of the children for physical exercise; it must accustom the children to order, punctuality, and cleanliness; it must correspond to the physical and intellectual powers of children; it must develop the aesthetic feeling; it must serve as a recreation for children when they are tired by their intellectual work." In fact, manual training in Russia is "considered to be more an object of general education than one of a special professional character," and its course forms a series of successive lessons.

The gradual transformation of "middle schools" into complete gymnasia, especially in the Baltic provinces, is still going on. The Russian Government proposes the founding of professorships of "folk music" in some of the Russian universities. In connection with the secondary schools the subject of the advisability of modifying the study of Latin and Greek on the school programmes is being discussed, as is also the aim and method of teaching modern languages in these grades.

The conditions and requirements in the universities are being gradually modified, in consonance with the suggestions of the commissions which have discussed the subject since 1884. (See pp. 221-225 of the Report of the United States Commissioner of Education for 1890-91.) The main object seems to be to more thoroughly nationalize the universities, to bring about a more practical line of work with fewer studies and less cramming for examination, and to require a higher grade examination for admission. As is stated in the Revue Internationale de l'Enseignement, instruction in the universities is gradually being limited to that given by professors of Russian nationality. In Dorpe

Manual Training in Russia, by E. Kovalevsky, in Addresses and Proceedings International Congress of Education, Chicago, 1893.

University a Russian inspector has been installed in place of the rector, liberty of study has been curtailed, and the student corporations have been gradually done away with during 1894. Restrictive decrees tend to more thoroughly Russianize this university, and, in accordance with the new methods adopted since the abolishing of the functions of a rector, the plans and forms which have heretofore governed the university, and which emanated from German sources, have gradually disappeared during the year 1894.

In Poland the educational questions under discussion, as indicated in the Przeglad Pedagogiczny, include the best methods for inculcation of moral teachings; different methods of teaching geography, arithmetic, religion, domestic and agricultural economy, and also, the best plans to be used in the giving of historical instruction. Educational movements in other countries are also chronicled in this same pedagogical review, as the editors seem to consider it desirable that the people have cognizance of pedagogical questions in the United States, in Prussia, in Austria, and elsewhere.

In the Caucasus, as indicated by late publications' from Tiflis, the questions under discussion, or requiring discussion, are those pertaining to the study of the Russian language and literature; how Latin should be taught in the first and second classes of the gymnasia; what is needed in schools connected with military institutions; needed improvements in the study of ancient and modern languages, geogra phy, and mathematics in the schools of that subdivision of the Empire; the need of an organization of pedagogical institutes for the preparation of teachers in gymnasia and real schools, with the object of benefiting the teacher mentally and physically. It is stated that each student should have opportunities for teaching in a practice school attached to the institution where studying, and that the diplomas of doctor and licentiate in pedagogy should be required of the graduates who desire to become teachers. What is most needed is a corps of teachers well versed in the science of education and not limited to special branches. The subjects of study in elementary schools and the length of school hours throughout the different grades are being discussed. The individual development of pupils in educational establishments, generally speaking, and in secondary schools in particular, is a question which receives due consideration. Physical training also becomes a subject for discussion, for as the physical condition affects the mental, so from the earliest age care of the body should be taken, but all methods of physical culture should be in accordance with the natural strength, so that no abnormal conditions be developed.

1. Sur l'éducation examinée dans ses rapports respectifs-religieux, moral, intellectuel et physique par M. Cyrille Janovsky. II. Instituts pédagogiques, comme établissements destinés à préparer des maîtres pour les écoles secondaires, par M. Cyrillo Janovsky. III. Sur le développement individuel des élèves dans les établissements d'instruction en général et les écoles secondaires en particulier, par M. Cyrille Janovsky.

The education of girls receives greater consideration by the authori ties since it is understood that in some villages "there is only 1 girl to 6 boys in school." One outcome of this decision was the opening of a new school, on Grand Duchess Xenia's birthday, for the daughters of impoverished noblemen. This school accommodates 350 half orphans, has a regular course of study, and gives instruction in practical industries.

A commission is studying the subject of elementary education' as carried on in other countries, with a view to the establishment of public elementary education throughout Russia. This commission or committee is connected with the Imperial Society for the Investigation of Economic Questions. According to the "Notice sur les travaux et le personnel du Comité de l'instruction primaire près la Société impériale libre économique," the members studying educational questions numbered 644 on January 1, 1894, and there were eight subcommittees. Fifty-three members took part in the committee meetings; seven formed the council. During the year there had been seventeen gen eral assembly meetings and twenty-two sessions of the council. The work of the committees is indicated in part by their titles, i. e., (1) committee on publication of books for the people; (2) committee on editing a systematic résumé of school literature; (3) library committee; (4) ways and means committee; (5) committee on aid to pupils of rural schools in famine-stricken districts; (6) statistical committee investigating the conditions of instruction and need of enlightenment of the people; (7) committee charged with publication of the works of Koltzoff-a popular poet; (8) committee to obtain funds for the establishment of the A. N. Engelhardt school (to be named in honor of a professor of chemistry and a promoter of agricultural studies).

Among the questions which came up for discussion were the advis ability of the study of elementary agriculture in rural schools, and the foundation of statutes for societies for popularizing education. The committee on elementary education placed themselves in communication with the zemstvos and offered to aid them in bringing about an improvement of educational conditions: (1) By suggesting the best textbooks; (2) by suggesting the formation of school libraries. The result of the interchange of educational ideas brought a request for an appropriation of 25,000 rubles to help establish 100 school libraries-at the rate of 250 cach-in the zemstvos which were endeavoring to create such aids to learning. The discussions concerning the study of agriculture in normal schools culminated in the decision that the people of rural districts did not need military gymnastics, sacred hymns, and the elements of agriculture, nearly as much as they needed to know how to

Allgemeine deutsche Lehrerzeitung, September, 1894.

Reports bearing upon the status of education in the United States are under study by this committee. The intention is to ameliorate existing conditions, and, if possible, to establish a national system of education throughout Russia.

read, and to read in the most elevated diction. The committees decided that to teach the elements of agriculture and horticulture technically trained teachers are required, and while it would be an excellent matter to give such instruction, the people had other and greater needs at present, and, consequently, professional (that is, technical or industrial) education should be kept quite apart from elementary education. The committee for elementary education was the means of purchasing and distributing 48,992 books to schools; gifts of books to the committee, 6,348; total distribution, 51,500 books to 446 places.

The distribution extended over 59 provinces, and 86 per cent of the total came into the possession of the governments of Central Russia, where there are zemstvos-these local governments having schools which give general instruction to the pupils. The committee also acted as agent for the formation and forwarding of small school libraries, in accordance with requests from societies, institutions, etc. The committee in charge of publication of books for the people engaged men well known in science and pedagogy in Russia to aid them, and "popular scientific works in all branches of science" are to be published this coming year, while 61 of the best examples of the literature of Russia and other countries have been analyzed within seven months and 27 chosen for publication. The committee having in preparation a résumé of school literature has already published eight parts containing 1,650 entries, with a description of each subject, such as pedagogy, the national language, history, geography, medicine, and hygiene, gymnastics, singing, drawing, and manual training. The library committee reported 7,915 books and 3,597 engravings at beginning of the year and 1,823 additions during the year. This collection contains books on school legislation, official documents, and reports of ministers of education from Sweden, Norway, France, Germany, Roumania, Servia, and the United States, and forms the embryo of a valuable pedagogical library.

The committee in charge of the tenth anniversary celebration of schools, held on Sunday in the suburbs of the capital for the benefit of workmen employed in factories, etc., reported that 5,042 pupils had been under instruction-their ages varying from 15 to 40 years; evening classes, lectures, illustrated by magic lantern, and a library have added to the interest of the work. Seventy-two teachers give their time gratuitously. Methods are discussed at the general assembly of the teachers; at the close of the year reports are made to the inspector of the people's schools of the district of St. Petersburg, who presides at the examinations. The special evening classes, opened in 1889, have instruction in catechism, Russian language, history, geography, arithmetic, geometry, physics, chemistry, mechanics, and drawing. The pupils pay 50 kopecks a month. Most of the pupils come into these schools for two hours of study and instruction after twelve hours of labor, and sometimes they decline the emoluments for extra hours so that they may attend these evening classes.

EDUCATIONAL AND CHARITABLE WORK.

A short historical sketch of the Marie educational and charitable institutions, which are under the immediate patronage of their Majesties the Czar and Czarina, was prepared for the Columbian Exposition at Chicago. The value and amount of work accomplished by these institutions since their earliest beginnings (under Catherine II, 1762– 1796), the present conditions (in 1892), and the completeness of detail, seem to render this sketch of value to the student, hence the main facts are presented:

From the remotest time up to the accession of Peter the Great the social organization of Russia was based on the patriarchal idea, and thus necessarily involved the strict exclusion of women from all participation and share in public life.

So long as this state of things continued women were naturally denied all such instruction as, while developing their intelligence, would at the same time enable them to superintend and direct the first and most elementary education of their children.

Education, even of the most limited kind, was regarded as a privilege to be zealously reserved to men, and if from time to time we find a few rare exceptions in the case of brilliantly endowed and widely instructed women, such exceptions were exclusively peculiar to monastic and conventual life.

#

With the accession to the throne of Catherine II, the worthy successor of Peter the Great, commences a new epoch in Russian social life. The sovereigns of the country now began to take a direct and special interest in the education of the women of Russia.

Among the very few of her counselors who were disposed or able to aid her in this great work, the philanthropist Betski occupies the first and most prominent place. He understood that the education of women could only have a healthy influence on the social development and general welfare of the country. One of the most highly cultured men of his age, he believed it possible to "create a new race of fathers and mothers." It was with this object that he proposed the establishment of boarding schools in which girls of noble birth might be brought up and educated in strict isolation from the outer world.

Accordingly, on the 5th of May, 1764, the Empress issued her royal order for the establishment of an educational home for girls of noble birth; and the buildings of the Convent of the Resurrection were by her express command made over to the new school.

Scarcely a year had passed when, at her initiation, a branch establishment, designed for young girls of the middle class of society, was opened in the same building.

Parents, on making application for the admission of their children into one or the other of these institutions, were required to give in a written pledge to the authorities that, save in cases of dangerous illness or proved incapacity for school work, the children should not be withdrawn till they had completed the full and entire course of studies.

The age at which pupils were admitted was fixed at 5 and 6 years, the whole course of studies extending over a period of twelve years. In each of the two schools there were four classes. The programme of studies for the first class included religion, the Russian and three foreign languages, arithmetic, music, draw ing, dancing, sewing, and knitting; that for the second class further included his tory, geography, and the elements of rural economy. Architecture and heraldr formed the additional subjects for the third class, while a course of reading in history and literature served to familiarize the pupils with leading events in the social ED 94-26