HISTORICAL RÉSUMÉ.1 In Finland, to date of 1611, the church authorities controlled educational institutions, the few schools being annexed to Catholic monasteries. The Lutheran Church neglected to do anything for public instruction until the reign of Gustavus Adolphus (1611-1632); but special activity is noticed during Queen Christina's reign (1632-1654), and the university was organized in 1640. In 1686 an edict of Charles XI required the clergy to hold an annual examination to ascertain whether children could read, and whether they knew their catechism; it prohibited the marriage of parties who failed in the above and who had not been confirmed. A law of 1649, amended in 1724, regulated public instruction for a considerable period. Latin was the principal subject of study at that date, and the language most generally used. The schools were generally controlled by the clergy, and consequently varied in organization, in accordance with the wishes of the bishops in different dioceses. Elementary instruction was left almost entirely to the families, but the Lutheran Church exercised control even over this instruction. In 1792-1809 the university, in point of instruction and professors, reached a degree of excellence which it has hardly surpassed since. During the wars which brought about the annexation, in 1809, of Finland to Russia as a grand duchy, the attention of the people was diverted from any attempts at special educational progress, but in 1812 three navigation schools were established, and from 1825 to 1855 public instruction developed materially while general conditions greatly improved. In 1837 agricultural institutes were first referred to; in 1813 a new school law, tending toward specialization in study, was promulgated; in 1847 the polytechnic school was established. In 1858 the subject of elementary education was agitated; rural communes were required to establish stationary schools and governmental a'd was promised. The school organization was not definitely regulated, however, until eight years later. From 1858 on the first measures to extend the use of the Finnish language were adopted, Swedish having been the only language for general use permitted by law of 1843. A Finnish school and a school for deaf and dumb were established in Isis. In 1863 the first association of teachers was formed, and a normal school was created in 1863–64. The beginning of a withdrawal of all schools from ecclesiastical authority dates from 1865, and this change from clerical to lay authority vabituated in 1869, when the higher council of education was created at Tebington, In to the school system was definitely organized, and governmental subendo's wore to be withheld if its provisions were not carried out by The main vs qu this resumé are taken from an article by R. Candiani in the cobor, 1892. He quotes from material furnished by the ལ་ ་ ཅི་%་༈»།་ {སྟུ་“སའིནe the local authorities. In 1871-1880 several normal schools were created for one or the other sex. In 1872 the real schools, lyceums, and high grade schools for women were classified under the term "elementar-läroverken," the object being to continue elementary education and to prepare for special schools. Among the private lyceums are five where boys and girls receive instruction in common preparatory to university studies. In 1888 Parliament decreed the establishment of lyceums for girls to prepare them for university courses, and by reason of this and other legislative measures the social and political status of women has been greatly benefited during the last few years. Woman may now fill a number of positions in administrative offices, and, although she is not considered eligible as a voter, she has acquired the right of voting in the commune. Much of this progress is attributed to the efforts of the Woman's Society of Finland, established in 1884. Another element of progress within the last quarter of a century is the gradual equalization of the use of Finnish and Swedish languages. In 1858 there was only 1 Finnish school of a secondary grade; in 1891-92 the number of schools in which Finnish is the language of instruction included 13 lyceums, 10 real schools, and 6 secondary schools for girls; of elementary schools the number is not stated. At the present date there are 58 Finnish journals and reviews (12 more than in Swedish), and the Finnish and Swedish languages are equally used in all adminis trative and educational offices. So that it may be seen that the struggle between the "Svécomanes" and "Fennomanes" is diminishing by degrees. In the matter of manual and physical training and in that of the construction of a superior class of school buildings, arranged according to the most approved hygienic methods, the inhabitants of Finland take an excellent position. Gymnastics is obligatory for both sexes in institutions of all grades, and the youth of secondary and higher grade schools are encouraged to learn to swim, to ride horseback, to skate, to ride bicycles, to row, and to manage sailboats, etc., and they are encouraged to take part in competitive athletic sports. Helsingfors is the center of scientific, literary, and artistic effort, while other cities also have many courses and conferences tending toward the instruction and material benefit of the public. Temperance' associations are organized, and many pamphlets deal A lady of Finland, Fröken Alli Trygg, has, since 1888, established a workingmen's home and a people's kitchen, so as to do her part toward the elevation of her fellowmen. Living in a suburb of Helsingfors, largely inhabited by men of that class, her endeavor has been in the People's Kitchen to furnish the men with healthful, nourishing food, and through the invention of a new fermented beverage, with almost no alcohol in it, she hopes to keep them from drinking beer and brandy. Her appeal to the Finnish Senate brought her a grant of 60,000 marks ($11,580) for the Workingmen's Home. A kindergarten and nursery are found in the home; there is a hall for gymnastics and music, a loan library, a free reading hall with papers and periodicals, a larger hall for lectures on Sundays and evenings when the men are at liberty. Fröken Trygg resides in this institution and devotes herself to its welfare. 422 In Finla tional inst: teries. Tl: instruction special act and the u In 1686 examina they k failed in A law conside date, a The sch varied in different the fami instruct profess since. CHAPTER X. THE PSYCHOLOGICAL REVIVAL.1 [For previous article on the subject see chapter on Child Study, Report 1892-93, vol. 1, pp. 357-391.] TOPICAL OUTLINE.-Chief events in the movement during the year 1893-94; societies formed; periodicals issued—Interdependence of the different methods of investigation-University equipment for psycho-physics and courses in child study-Results of the new psychology applicable to education-Addresses and citations from reports, articles, etc. Among the intellectual movements of the time none has greater importance for education than the revival of interest in psychology During the year under review the agencies concerned in this move ment have been increased by the formation of the American Psycho logical Association and the publication of the Psychological Review. whose first issue bears date January, 1894. Edited by Profs. J. Mark Baldwin, of Princeton University, and J. McKeen Cattell, of Columbia College, with the cooperation of a large body of distinguished specialists, the comprehensive and scholarly character of this periodical is assured. The interest aroused and maintained by specialists in the leading universities has naturally extended to the great body of teachers, many of whom have pursued courses of psychology in the universities, and a still larger number similar courses in normal schools. As in the case of other movements affecting education, the strength of this, which had been silently developing for some time, was first signally manifested at Chicago. None of the department congresses held during the memorable summer of 1893 had larger or more enthusiastic audiences than the psychological. As regards numbers, at least, this was particu, larly true of the department congress of experimental psychology in education under the presidency of Dr. G. Stanley Hall. As to Dr. Hall, more than to anyone else, is due the credit of having aroused teachers to a sense of the value of this subject as a part of their professional equipment, it is natural that they should follow particularly the directions in which he has led. In one of these directions, namely, the systematic observation of children, the cooperation of teachers is Prepared by A. Tolman Smith. A esi indispensable. By his efforts to secure s. Dr. Hall has called into existence a national g: this in turn has given rise to local or State which exact direction may be given to the work sor groups of observers. Vsion of child study has been created in the nstruction under the direction of Prof. Charles Colgate University. Blank forms are issued to of which systematic records may be kept of their Children. Bulletins are also issued containing gendaseful hints for the work, with accounts of individographies, etc. cy for child study was formed at the meeting of the Association held in Des Moines, December, 1894. he initial meeting of this society will be found among Xxxpended. Sdy Monthly, the first number of which has just N. 1895), will undoubtedly prove a valuable auxiliary to edited by Dr. W. O. Krohn, assistant professor of esse materest in the subject never flags, has added to the ggestions for teachers and parents previously issued a child study. These cover fifteen topics, including xe, love of animals; emotional expression, crying, experiences, etc. It is interesting to note in this conos Sully, of London, following the American precation of parents and teachers in collecting facts acteristics of the childish mind. What he espeand observations carried out on children during years of life. The points to which observation is wo are grouped under specific heads, as fancy, self -py incident to an exaggerated interest in child dave not escaped the attention of leaders of this but a fragment of a great whole; considered at a ad unimportant may be unduly exaggerated, e tarnishes the interpretation of many phenomd. It is to be remembered, also, that the desends largely upon certain qualities in the These are not characteristic of De specialist. bors, and in so far as close observation tends to |