with their ten-month schools finally created a public sentiment which now insists on long terms for all districts.

The best device yet discovered to help the schools in sparsely settled districts is the payment of cost of transportation by the school committee and the consolidation of districts. The children from outlying districts are brought to the town center, where a large, well-graded school is kept up for two hundred days of the year. The cost of trausportation for the pupils living more than a mile away is not so great an item as the cost of furnishing teachers and school buildings for half a dozen pupils each.

In the small rural school no classification can be attempted, and for the most part the pupils never get beyond the rudiments of reading, writing, and arithmetic. With good classification the city teacher can teach from 40 to 60 pupils well. In the ungraded school not even 16 to 30 pupils can be well taught.

This increase of graded schools explains how it is that in the South, with a great increase of expenditures and with a much longer school session, the average cost per pupil is not materially increased. Twenty years ago it was $8.40; last year it was only $8.62. But the pupil receives now better accommodations, better instruction, and a longer school session than then, and the newly established training schools are sending into the work thousands of professional, trained teachers. It is interesting to note the effects of urban growth and the increase of schools in the South on the wealth and productive power.

The wealth is estimated as follows by the United States Census:

Education has produced a laboring class that can use machinery to assist the strength of bone and muscle. It has made possible the great change of vocations from the production of mere raw materials. to the production of the finished product. This is a change going on in all civilized countries. The machine is coming in at one end, and the mere drudge is going out at the other. The uneducated, unskilled man is not needed, for his hands and muscles can not compete with the machine. He is needed, however, in the work of directing the machine, and is therefore called upon to step up from the occupation of the mere drudge to the occupation of the overseer. The change from hand work to brain work is a necessity. But this can not go on without schools that fit the pupils out with alert and versatile intelligence.

Even in the fertile fields of the South unskilled labor does not bring good wages. But the skilled laborer in the city, using tools and directing machinery, earns and receives an average of double the wages that the farm hand gets.

Machinery is going out from the city to the farm; and the farm, too, needs fewer laborers, and can furnish more productions. The surplus farmers must go into mechanical industries, into transportation, and commerce. Fewer and fewer people are needed for the production of the raw materials of food, clothing, and shelter all the world over, thanks to mechanic inventions, which are pushing the mere illiterate drudge out of his vocation. He must climb to the plain of the skilled laborer or else starve in his attempt to compete with the machine.

A school system makes possible a change of vocations among its people. It puts alertness and versatility in place of mere brute strength and persistency. More than this, the school puts aspiration and ambition into its pupils. It lifts the veil of distance in time and place, and shows them the achievements of the race. "You, too, can achieve the like." The school next proceeds to teach the sciences by which the wonders of the world have been accomplished; mathematics, the tool of thought, by which matter is moved and forces are tamed into the service of man; history, and geography, and grammar, and literature, by which man comes to know men, and gains the ability to combine with them in civilized effort.

The work of education is the direct work of helping individuals to help themselves.

Small as is the schooling given by the nation to its people, some four and one-half years apiece, it suffices to make reading and writing universal, and in addition to these gives also a limited acquaintance with the rudiments of arithmetic and geography. This fits the citizen to become a reader of the daily newspaper, and thus to bring him under an educating influence that will continue throughout his life. A newspaper civilization is one that governs by means of public opinion. The newspaper creates public opinion. No great free nation is possible except in a newspaper civilization. By aid of the printed page the school-educated person makes present to himself daily the events of the world and lives an epic life, for the epic life is the life of nations. A certain portion of the day of each citizen is given to contemplating world events, and to discussing them. He sees the doings of his State and nation, and forms his own opinion. His opinion in the aggregate, with those of his fellow-citizens, is collected and offered to the world by the newspaper. Our schools suffice to produce a government by public opinion. This is a result of a higher order than the other good results which we have canvassed as among the benefits to the South of the education which it is giving to its children. To give people the power to readjust their vocations and to climb up to better-paid and more useful industries out of lives of drudgery is a great thing, a suffi

cient reason in itself for establishing a public-school system. But to give the people the power of participating in each other's thoughts, to give each one the power to contribute his influence to the formation of a national public opinion, is a far greater good, for it looks forward to the millennium, when no wars will be needed for the mediation of hostile ideas.

SECONDARY SCHOOLS.

In Chapter 3 will be found a fuller presentation of the statistics of secondary education than ever before attempted by this Bureau. In Part III of this annual report more than half the space is occupied with detailed tables relating to public and private secondary schools. There will be found the names and the usual statistics of 5,946 public high schools reporting to this office in 1894. This is an increase of 1,700 over the number reporting in 1893. A special effort was made to secure returns from all the public high schools in the United States, and it is believed that only a small per cent failed to report. The total number of secondary students in these schools is 407,919, an increase of 78,821 over the number reported in 1893. In 1894 there were 3,964 public high schools, with 289,274 students, and 1,982 private high schools, with 118,645 students. One must not suppose that there has been within a year or even two years any such increase as these figures would indicate, although the growth of secondary schools within five years has been remarkable. The Bureau has reached out and gathered in statistics of all public and private high schools that could be persuaded to send reports to this office. Many of the schools are new and many more have been in existence for several years.

The tables in Chapter 3 are very full and comprehensive. The deductions drawn from them will prove of deep interest to those who are watching the development of secondary education in this country. The results of the work of these secondary schools, both public and private, indicate steady improvement. For example, there was relative increase in the number graduating in 1894 over 1893, and a comparison of the percentages of students pursuing the ten leading secondary studies shows marked advancement. The per cent of students in Latin increased from 43.06 to 44.78 in the public high schools and from 39.23 to 40.77 in the private secondary schools. The per cent studying algebra in the public schools was 52.88 in 1893 and 56.14 in 1894, while in the pri vate schools the increase was from 42.75 to 44.37. There was an almost imperceptible decrease in the per cent of students in Greek in the public schools and an insignificant falling off in the percentage of students in German, but for all the other high-school studies the percentages are higher for 1894 than for 1893.

A bird's-eye view of the statistics of secondary schools for 1894 is given in Table 20. This table, in connection with the six full-page diagrams in the same chapter, will convey a clear idea of the comparative

importance and present standing of public and private secondary schools. Table 25 shows the distribution of the 480,358 secondary students reported to this Bureau in 1894.

HIGHER EDUCATION.

Universities and colleges.-The statistical summaries of universities and colleges are given on pages 91-118. They show the number of institutions reporting as 476, there being one institution for every 131,559 persons. The number of professors and instructors was 10,897, of which number 13.8 per cent were women. The average number of instructors per institution was 23. The students reported were as follows: Preparatory, 45,188; collegiate, 60,415; resident graduates, 3,026; nonresident graduates, 993; professional, 21,265; total in all departments, 143,632. Of the total number, 24.5 per cent were women and 4.9 per cent were colored.

The home residence of collegiate students in 447 universities and colleges has been collected and tabulated in a summarized form. From the data thus obtained the proportion of the population of the several States attending college has been computed and represented graphically.

The value of the entire equipment of the universities and colleges is given as $212,181,552, of which amount $98,527,052 are endowment funds. The total income was $15,365,612, of which amount 38.1 per cent was derived from tuition fees, 34.3 per cent from productive funds, 17 per cent from national, State, and municipal appropriations, and the remainder, or 10.6 per cent, from miscellaneous sources. The benefactions during the year amounted to $9,025,240.

Colleges for women.-The 166 colleges for women reporting to this office, and not included in the list of 476 above referred to, had, in 1893–94, 2,460 instructors and 23,707 students. Of the 15 fellowships reported, Byrn Mawr College holds 11. The benefactions to colleges for women amounted to $369,183.

Colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts.-The number of students reported by the 63 institutions endowed by the acts of Congress of July 2, 1862, and August 30, 1890, was 17,280, of which number 4,568 were in preparatory departments, 12,358 in collegiate departments, and 354 in graduate departments. The total income reported by these institutions was $5,991,101.40, of which amount 36.6 per cent was received from the General Government, either as income from the funds realized by the sale of lands granted by the act of July 2, 1862, or as appropriated by the acts of March 2, 1887, and August 30, 1890. The present condition and progress of these institutions during the year under review, as reported by the several presidents, may be found in the third section of Chapter IV.

University extension.-Chapter VI of Part II presents the work in university extension during the year as reported to this office by the

various agencies. Included in this chapter are interesting accounts of the work in Ohio by Prof. Willis Boughton, and in New Jersey by Dr. Austin Scott, president of Rutgers College; also a report of the School of Applied Ethics.

Professional education.-The number of students in theological schools was 7,658. Presbyterians had the largest number, 1,375; Catholics come second with 1,250, followed in order by the Baptists, Lutherans, and Methodists. In comparison with the number of members, Congregationalists come first.

There are 67 law schools, with 7,311 students. The legal profession of this country wields an immense influence in all matters that pertain to State, national, and municipal politics. They constitute mainly our public officers-legislative, judicial, executive-both State and national. Notwithstanding this, it seems that the qualifications for entering the legal profession are as low, if not lower, than for any other profession. The requirements for graduation from law schools, too, are less rigid than from any other class of professional schools. The fault lies not with the schools. They can not demand high attainments when so many States practically require no special attainments for legal practice. The American Bar Association has in recent years undertaken efficient means to enlighten public opinion on this important theme.

There are 152 medical colleges, with 21,802 students-17,601 regular, 1,666 homeopathic, 803 eclectic, 1,732 graduate, etc. The process of raising the standard of medical education still continues. The Association of American Medical Colleges a few years ago lengthened the course to three years of not less than six months each. In 1894 they again raised the standard to four years for all students entering upon the study of medicine in 1895 or subsequently. Moreover, nearly half the States require a State medical examination, while many others have strict regulations.

There are 88 schools of dentistry and pharmacy each, with 4,152 dental students and 3,658 students of pharmacy.

The statistics of normal schools are summarized in Chapter IV. There were 80,767 students in training courses for teachers in five classes of institutions; 37,899 in 160 public normal schools, 27,995 in 238 private normal schools, 5,500 in pedagogical courses in 173 colleges and universities, 5,041 in teachers' training courses in 153 public high schools, and 4,332 in similar courses in 137 private high schools. The public and private normal schools sent out 8,271 graduates in 1894. There is reported a very large increase over the previous year in the amount of appropriations from States, counties, and cities for the support of public normal schools for 1894. In 1893 the appropriations for this purpose amounted to $1,452,914, and in 1894 the aggregate was $1,996,271. This increase was due in part to the increase in the number of schools reporting. In like manner there was an increase in the amount appropriated for building from $816,826 in 1893 to $1,583,399