Competition in athletic sports is another feature authorized by the authorities; gymnastics is obligatory for both sexes in institutions of all grades, and school children are taught to swim, to skate, to ride bicycles, etc.

In my report for 1892-93 I included a chapter on child study (Vol. I, pp. 357-391). The subject is continued in the present report, in connection with a survey of recent movements pertaining to psychology in general (Chap. X).

Attention is called to new periodicals devoted to the subject as a whole or to some particular phase-i. e., The Psychological Review, The Child Study Monthly, etc.-and to the societies formed for promoting research in this province. Emphasis is placed upon the movements for correlating the results of different classes of investigation; the equipment of the leading universities for research in psycho-physics is given somewhat in detail with notices of the courses in child study maintained side by side with laboratory work. The principal results of the new psychology bearing directly upon school work are cited, and emphasis is placed upon their agreement with the conclusions reached by physiological investigations.

To the general survey of the movement several papers are appended, comprising discussions of the relations between the old and the new psychology, by Dr. Münsterberg, the bearing of the new psychology upon education by Dr. G. Stanley Hall, and other papers, discussing certain aspects of child study, the scope of psycho-physiology, and the grounds for the medical inspection of schools. The chapter concludes with a bibliography of the general subject covering the current year. The National Educational Association has of late years undertaken several problems of great importance. A committee appointed at the Saratoga meeting in 1892 was charged with the examination of the exist ing courses of study and conditions of the secondary schools-that is to say, all institutions above the elementary schools which undertake to prepare students for college. This "committee of ten," as it is commonly called, reported extensively on its work, and its report was completed and published in the spring of 1894.

Meanwhile, in the superintendents' section of the National Educational Association, another committee was appointed to investigate in a like manner the work of elementary schools. This committee consisted of fifteen members. Three questions were submitted to it: (a) The organization of city school systems; (b) the correlation of studies in elementary education, and (e) the training of teachers. In order to facilitate the work the committee was divided into three sections, each consisting of five members, and each of these sections was intrusted with reporting on one of the three questions mentioned. Their reports were laid before the National Educational Association in February, 1895, and were vigorously discussed in the educational and other journals of this country. In order to preserve these documents I have caused them to be reprinted in this annual report.

One of the members of the committee, Superintendent James M. Greenwood, of Kansas City, Mo., dissents from the majority report in the opinion expressed regarding arithmetic. He has kindly furnished me a number of shorthand reports of arithmetic lessons taken in the schools under his charge. They are of sufficient interest to teachers to give them a place in this volume in the form of a supplement to the committee report. I add also a reprint of an article from the report of the St. Louis schools for the year 1872-73, entitled "Educational values." It contains a somewhat fuller discussion of some of the points relative to the educative value of the several studies in elementary and secondary schools, and in this way may be useful in explaining points that would seem to be obscure in the report of the subcommittee on the correlation of studies.

In the report of the committee of fifteen on the correlation of studies it was partly assumed that the studies of the school fall naturally into five coordinate groups, thus permitting a choice within each group as to the arrangement of its several topics, some finding a place early in the curriculum and others later. These five coordinate groups were, first, mathematics and physics; second, biology, including chiefly the plant and the animal; third, literature and art, including chiefly the study of literary works of art; fourth, grammar and the technical and scientific study of language, leading to such branches as logic and psychology; fifth, history and the study of sociological, political, and social institutions. Each one of these groups, it was assumed, should be represented in the curriculum at all times by some topic suited to the age and previous training of the pupil. This would be demanded by the two kinds of correlation defined in that report as (1) "symmetrical whole of studies in the world of human learning," and (2) "the psychological symmetry, or the whole mind.”

The first period of school education is education for culture and education for the purpose of gaining command of the conventionalities of intelligence. These conventionalities are such arts as reading and writing and the use of figures, technicalities of maps, dictionaries, the art of drawing, and all of those semimechanical facilities which enable the child to get access to the intellectual conquests of the race. Later on in the school course, when the pupil passes out of his elementary studies, which partake more of the nature of practice than of theory, he comes in the secondary school and the college to the study of science and the technic necessary for its preservation and communication. All these things belong to the first stage of school instruction, the aim of which is culture. On the other hand, post-graduate work and the work of professional schools have not the aim of culture so much as the aim of fitting the person for a special vocation. In the post-graduate work of universities the demand is for original investigation in special fields. In the professional school the student masters the elements of a particular practice, learning its theory and its art.

It is in the first part of education-the schools for culture-that the five coordinate branches should be represented in a symmetrical manIt is not to be thought that a course of university study, or that of a professional school should be symmetrical. The study of special fields of learning should come after a course of study for culture has been pursued in which the symmetrical whole of human learning and the symmetrical whole of the soul are considered. From the primary school, therefore, on through the academic course of the college, there should be symmetry, and five coordinate groups of studies represented at each part of the course, at least in each year, although perhaps not throughout each part of the year.

Commencing with the outlook of the child upon the world of nature, it has been found that arithmetic or mathematical study furnishes the first scientific key to the existence of bodies and their various motions. Mathematics in its pure form, as arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and the application of the analytical method, as well as mathematics applied to matter and force or statics and dynamics, furnishes the peculiar study that gives to us, whether as children or as men, the command of nature in this, its quantitative aspect. Mathematics furnishes the instrument, the tool of thought, which gives us power in this realm. But useful, nay, essential, as this mathematical or quantitative study is for this first aspect of nature, it is limited to it, and should not be applied to the next phase of nature, which is that of organic life; for we must not study in the growth of the plant simply the mechanical action of forces, but we must subordinate everything quantitative and mathematical to the principle of life or movement according to internal purpose or design. The principle of life, or biology, is no substitute, on the other hand, for the mathematical or quantitative study. The forces, heat, light, electricity, magnetism, galvanism, gravitation, inorganic matter-all these things are best studied from the mathematical point of view. The superstitious savage, however, imposes upon the inorganic world the principle of biology. He sees the personal effort of spirits in winds and storms, in fire and flowing streams. He substi tutes for mathematies the principle of life, and looks in the movement of inanimate things for an indwelling soul. This is the animistic standpoint of human culture-the substitution of the biologic method of looking at the world for the quantitative or mathematical view.

The second group includes whatever is organic in nature-especially studies relating to the plant and the animal-the growth of material for food and clothing, and in a large measure for means of transportation and culture. This study of the organic phase of nature forms a great portion of the branch of study known as geography in the elementary school. Geography takes up also some of the topics that belong to the mathematical or quantitative view of nature, but it takes them up into a new combination with a view to show how they are related to organic life-to creating and supplying the needs of the

plant, animal, and man. There is, it is true, a "concentration" in this respect, that the mathematical or quantitative appears in geogra phy as subordinated to the principle of organic life, for the quantitative-namely, inorganic matter and the forces of the solar systemappear as presuppositions of life. Life uses this as material out of which to organize its structures. The plant builds itself a structure of vegetable cells, transmuting what is inorganic into vegetable tissue; so, too, the animal builds over organic and inorganic substances, drawing from the air and water and from inorganic salts and acids, and by use of heat, light, and electricity converting vegetable tissue into animal tissue. The revelation of the life principle in plant and animal is not a mathematical one; it is not a mechanism moved by pressure from without or by attraction from within; it is not a mere displacement or an aggregation, or anything of that sort. In so far as it is organic, there is a formative principle which originates motion and modifies the inorganic materials and the mere dynamic forces of nature, giving them special form and direction, so as to build up vegetable or animal structures.

Kant defined organism as something within which every part is both means and end to all the other parts; all the other parts function in building up or developing each part, and each part in its turn is a means for the complete growth of every other part. These two phases of nature, the inorganic and the organic, exhaust the entire field. Hence a quantitative study conducted in pure and applied mathematics and biology (or the study of life in its manifestations) covers

nature.

It has been asked whether drawing does not belong to a separate group in the course of study, and whether manual training is not a study coordinate with history and grammar. There are a number of branches of study, such as drawing, manual training, physical culture, and the like, which ought to be taught in every well-regulated school, but they will easily find a place within the five groups so far as their intellectual coefficients are concerned. Drawing, for instance, may belong to art or æsthetics on one side, but practically it is partly physical training with a view to skill in the hand and eye, and partly mathematical with a view to the production of geometric form. As a physical training its rationale is to be found in physiology, and hence it belongs in this respect to the second phase of the study of nature. As relating to the production of form it belongs to geometry and trigonometry and arithmetic, or the first phase of nature, the inorganic. As relating to art, or the aesthetic, it belongs to the third group of studies, within which literature is the main discipline.

But beside literature there are architecture, sculpture, painting, and music to be included in the aesthetic or art group of studies. Manual training, on the other hand, relates to the transformation of material such as wood or stone or other minerals into structures for human use,

namely, for architecture and for machines. It is clear enough that the rationale of all this is to be found in mathematics, hence manual training does not furnish a new principle different from that found in the first or the second study relating to nature.

The first study relating to human nature, as contrasted with mere organic and inorganic nature, is literature. Literature, as the fifth and highest of the fine arts, reveals human nature in its intrinsic form. It may be said in general that a literary work of art, a poem, whether lyric, dramatic, or epic, or a prose work of art, such as a novel or a drama, reveals human nature in its height and depth. It shows the growth of a feeling or sentiment first into a conviction and then into a deed; feelings, thoughts, and deeds are thus connected by a literary work of art in such a way as to explain a complete genesis of human action. Moreover, in a literary work of art there is a revelation of man as a member of social institutions.

The nucleus of the literary work of art is usually an attack of the individual upon some one of the social institutions of which he is a member, namely, a collision with the State, with civil society, or with the church. This collision furnishes an occasion for either a comic or a tragic solution. The nature of the individual and of his evolution of feeling into thoughts and deeds is shown vividly upon the background of institutions and social life. The work of art, whether music, painting, sculpture, or architecture, belongs to the same group as literature, and it is obvious that the method in which the work of art should be studied is not the method adopted as applicable to inorganic nature or to organic nature. The physiology of a plant or an animal, and the habits and modes of growth and peculiarities of action on the part of plants and animals, are best comprehended by a different method of study from that which should be employed in studying the work of art. The work of art has a new principle, one that transcends life. It is the principle of responsible individuality and the principle of free subordination on the part of the individual to a social whole. It is in fact the exercise of original responsibility in opposition to a social whole, and the consequent retribution or other reaction that makes the content of the work of art. Further discussion is not necessary to show how absurd would be a purely mathematical treatment, or a biological treatment, of a work of art. Mathematics and biology must enter into a consideration of works of art only in a very subordinate degree. It would be equally absurd to attempt to apply the method in which a work of art should be studied to the study of an organic form or to the study of inorganic matter and forces.

The next coordinate branch includes grammar and language, and studies allied to it, such as logic and psychology. In the elementary school we have only grammar. Grammar treats of the structure of language; there is a mechanical side to it in orthography, and a technical side to it in etymology and syntax. But one can not call