grammar in any peculiar sense a formal study any more than he can apply the same epithet to one of the natural sciences. Natural science deals with the laws of material bodies and forces. Laws are forms of acting or of being, and yet by far the most important content of natural science is stated in the laws which it has discovered. So in the studies that relate to man the forms of human speech are very important. All grammatical studies require a twofold attitude of the mind, one toward the sign and one toward the signification; the shape of a letter or the form of a word or the peculiarity of a vocal utterance, these must be attended to, but they must be at once subordinated to the significance of the hidden thought which has become revealed by the sign or utterance.

The complexity of grammatical study is seen at once from this point of view. It is a double act of the will focusing the attention upon two different phases at once, namely, upon the natural phase and the spiritual phase, and the fusion of the two in one. Looking at this attitude of the mind, at this method of grammatical study, we see at once how different it all is from the attitude of the mind in the study of a work of art. In grammar we should not look to an evolution of a feeling into a thought or a deed; that would be entirely out of place. But we must give attention to the literal and prosaic word written or spoken, and consider it as an expression of a thought. We must note the structure of the intellect as revealed in this form. The word is a part of speech, having some one of the many functions which the word can fulfill in expressing a thought. Deeper down than grammatical structure is the logical structure, and this is a more fundamental revelation of the action of pure mind. Logic is in fact a part of psychology. Opening from one door toward another, we pass on our way from orthography, etymology, and syntax to logic and to psychology. All the way we use the same method; we use the sign or manifestation as a means of discovering the thought and the scientific classification of the thought.

Much has been said in the report of the committee of fifteen on the abuse of grammar in the study of literary works of art. The method of grammar leads to wonderful insight into the nature of reason itself. It is this insight which it gives us into our methods of thinking and of uttering our thoughts that furnishes the justification for grammar as one of the leading studies in the curriculum. Its use in teaching correct speaking and writing is always secondary to this higher use, which is to make conscious in man the structure of his thinking and expression. Important as it is, however, when it is substituted for the method of studying art it becomes an abuse. It is a poor way to study Shakespeare, Milton, Chaucer, and the Bible to grammatically parse them or analyze them, or to devote the time to their philological peculiarities, the history of the development of their language, or such matters. The proper method of studying the work of art is not a

United States. After a general introduction, in which the author discusses the educational theory of the American common school, he proceeds to trace, with some detail, the main outlines of the progress of the common-school idea from the time of its earliest appearance in New England. He recounts, also, the attempts at popular education in all of the other Colonies before the era of the Revolution, traces the increased interest in education of the various States as shown by the constitutions adopted during the war of the Revolution, and points out the awakening sense of nationality in matters of education which was displayed in the grants of magnificent areas of territory in what was then the new Northwest for purposes of education by the Congress of the Confederation.

In Chapter XVII, Rev. A. D. Mayo has given a sketch of the services of the late Robert Charles Winthrop to the Peabody education fund. In this paper also he traces briefly the career of George Peabody, showing how his fortune was accumulated, and unfolding the motives which led him to devote so large a share of his fortune to this particular form of education. Dr. Mayo traces also the career of Mr. Winthrop, and suggests the thought that his greatest service to the American people lies not in his political career, nor in his speeches and writings, but in the ability and fidelity which he displayed as president of the Peabody trustees in administering that great fund. The Peabody fund has been used to stimulate State and municipal action toward the organization and equipment of schools. It has also encouraged individual effort. To it more than to any other instrumentality is due the establishment on firm foundations of the common-school system in the South.

By an act of Congress approved August 30, 1890, additional funds were granted to the different States and Territories for the more complete endowment of their colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts. According to the terms of the act, the expenditure of the sums so appropriated was to be restricted to certain specified purposes. The disposition of these funds made during the current year by the various beneficiary institutions is given in detail in a table in Chapter I of Part II (pp. 792-794).

The effect of forests upon climate, agriculture, and in regulating the flow of water in streams has long been acknowledged. Several European nations own extensive forests, which not only perform important economic functions, but also, under expert management, yield immediate and direct revenue. The national forests of France, of 2,200,000 acres, yield annually about $5,000,000 net income. The planting, care, and preservation of forests are therefore subjects which these nations have recognized as demanding serious study. Mr. C. Wellman Parks, whom I appointed as special agent of this Bureau to the Antwerp Exposition, made an inquiry into the instruction given in several typical European forestry schools, the results of which are given in Chapter II of Part II (pp. 809-818). The account closes with a statement of the instruction

in forestry given at the different land-grant colleges in the United States.

"Geology in the colleges and universities of the United States" is the subject of Chapter III of Part II, contributed by Thomas Cramer Hopkins, A. M., S. M., fellow in geology, University of Chicago. The information compiled and the matter discussed in this chapter will prove especially valuable to teachers of geology and to prospective students in geology who are desirous of comparing the work done and the facilities offered in the different institutions in this branch of science. In preparing the chapter Mr. Hopkins used the replies from colleges and universities received in response to a circular sent out from this office asking for statistics on this subject. Besides having access to college catalogues, he gained much information from personal correspondence and interviews, and secured contributions from a number of well-known geologists in leading institutions. The matter is conveniently arranged and discussed by States, about 380 colleges and universities being mentioned, the chapter concluding with the statistical tables.

In 1887 a committee of distinguished chemists was appointed by the American Association for the Advancement of Science to consider the question of attaining uniformity in the spelling and pronunciation of chemical terms. Their report was adopted by the association at its meeting in 1891, was readopted in 1893, and is printed in full in Chapter IV of Part II of this report (pp. 873-876). The summary of rules which it contains has also been printed by this office in the form of a chart for distribution to high schools and colleges.

In Chapter V, Dr. C. M. Woodward, director of the St. Louis Mannal Training School, has sketched the "Rise and progress of manual training." This phase of the general subject of industrial training has attracted a great deal of attention within the last few years, because of the ability of its advocates and the novelty of their claims in certain respects, but more especially because the decay of the system of apprenticeship has led people to look for some means of industrial education that could prepare youth for their future vocations, without at the same time depriving them of general culture in letters and the arts.

Professor Woodward is the founder of the first school in this country that aimed to give a manual training that is educative in its entire effect.

The university-extension movement has attained considerable proportions since first introduced into this country in 1890. In some cases the extension work has been dropped after a trial, these instances occurring mainly in sparsely settled regions, where the expenses of a circuit of lectures are too great. In general, however, the plan has been found to be a useful and practicable means of supplementing the common-school instruction of large numbers of persons who for one

substitute for that in grammar; it does not open the windows of the mind toward the logical, philological, or psychological structure of human thought and action.

There is a fifth coordinate group of studies, namely, that of history. History looks to the formation of the state as the chief of human institutions. The development of states, the collisions of individ uals with the state, the collisions of the states with one another-these form the topic of history. The method of historic study is different from that in grammatical study and also from that in the study of literary and other works of art. Still more different is the method of history from those employed in the two groups of studies relating to nature, namely, the mathematical and biological methods. The history of literature and science has many examples of misapplications of method. For instance, Buckle, in his History of Civilization, has endeavored to apply the biological method and to some extent that of physics, apparently thinking that the methods of natural science, which are so good in their application to organic and inorganic nature, are likewise good for application within the realm of human nature. The reader of Buckle will remember, for instance, that the superstitious character of the Spanish people is explained by him as de to the frequency of earthquakes in the Peninsula. In selecting a physical cause for explaining a spiritual effect, Mr. Buckle passed over the most obvious explanation, which is this: The people of Spain were for many centuries on the marches or boundaries of Christian civilization and over against a Moslem civilization. Wherever there is a border land between two conflicting civilizations-a difference, either political or religious-there is a sharpening of the minds of the people so far as to produce the effect of opposition and bigotry. A continual effort to hold one's religious belief uncontaminated by the influence of a neighboring people leads to narrowness and to a superstitious adherence to forms. Narrowness and bigotry in religion are the foe to science and the friend to all manner of superstitions.

Mr. Buckle's work has interested people very much because it is an attempt to bring the methods of natural science into the study of human history. But it can not be regarded as anything more than an example of the attempt to substitute for the true method in history a method good only in another province.

In biology the whole animal is not fully revealed in each of his members, although, as stated in Kant's definition, each part is alike the means and the end for all the others. The higher animals and plants show the greatest difference between parts and whole. But in history it is the opposite; the lower types exhibit the greatest difference between the social whole and the individual citizen. The progress in history is toward freedom of the individual and local self-government. In the highest organisms of the state, therefore, there is a greater similarity between the individual and the national whole to which he

belongs. The individual takes a more active part in governing himself. The state becomes more and more an instrument of self-government in his hands. In the lowest states the gigantic personality of the social whole is all in all, and the individual personality is null, except in case of the supreme ruler and in the few associated with him.

The method of history keeps its gaze fixed upon the development of the social whole and the progress which it makes in realizing within its citizens the freedom of the whole. This method, it is evident enough, is different from those in literature and grammar; different also from the biological and the mathematical methods. In history we see how the little selves or individuals unite to form the big self or the nation. The analogies to this found in biology, namely, the combination of individual cells into the entire vegetable or animal organism, are all illusive so far as furnishing a clew to the process of human history.

From the above considerations it is possible to see what is the relation of this inquiry into educational values to the questions of child study and other topics in psychology, as well as to the Herbartian principle of interest. First and foremost, the teacher of the school has before him this question of the branches of learning to be selected. These must be discovered by looking at the grown man in civilization rather than at the child. The child has not yet developed his possibilities. The child first shows what he is truly and internally when he becomes a grown man. The child is the acorn. The acorn reveals what it is in the oak only after a thousand years. So man has revealed what he is, not in the cradle, but in the great world of human history and literature and science. He has written out his nature upon the blackboard of the universe.

In order to know what there is in the human will, we look into Plutarch's Parallel Lives. To see what man has done in philosophy, we read Plato, Aristotle, Leibnitz, and Hegel. For science we look to the Newtons and Darwins. We do not begin, therefore, with child study in our school education. But next after finding these great branches of human learning we consider the child, and how to bring him from his possibility to his reality. Then it becomes essential to study the child and his manner of evolution. We must discover which of its interests are already on the true road toward human greatness. We must likewise discover which ones conflict with the highest aims, and especially what interests there are that, although seemingly in conflict with the highest ends of man, are yet really tributary to human greatness, leading up to it by winding routes. All these are matters of child study, but they all presuppose the first knowledge, namely, the knowledge of the doings of mature humanity. There can be no step made in rational child study without keeping in view constantly these questions of the five coordinate groups of study.

Chapter XVI contains a sketch of the history of the American common school during the Colonial and Revolutionary period in the