These disorders increase in proportion to the number of people, and the opposition of private interests. If we consult history, we shall find them increasing in every state, with the extent of dominion. In political arithmetic, it is necessary to substitute a calculation of probabilities, to mathematical exactness. That force which continually impels us to our own private interest, like gravity, acts incessantly, unless it meets with an obstacle to oppose it. The effects of this force are the confused series of human actions. Punishments, which I would call political obstacles, prevent the fatal effects of private interest, without destroying the impelling cause, which is that sensibility inseparable from man. The legislator acts, in this case, like a skilful architect, who endeavours to counteract the force of gravity by combining the circumstances which may contribute to the strength of his edifice.-Beccaria.

DCCCCVII.

A Dilemma.-If we pretend to attribute the existence of one thing to the power of another, and to say that this power has been transmitted from one cause to another in infinite succession, we abandon the belief of a primary cause, since nothing can be first in a series which is every way infinite. If, on the other hand, we assume a principle, whence we wholly derive power, it follows that we must trace all efficient causes, whether productive of good or evil, to that first principle; and this is a doctrine, which I conceive to be directly contrary to the notions which we ought to entertain of the Deity.-Drummond's Academical Questions.

DCCCCVIII

Truth.-Truth will ever be unpalatable to those who are determined not to relinquish error, but can never give offence to the honest and well-meaning: for the plaindealing remonstrances of a friend differ as widely from the rancour of an enemy, as the friendly probe of a surgeon from the dagger of an assassin.-E. W. Montagu.

DCCCCIX.

Reason.—It is a great mistake in some divines, and declaimers of human nature, to imagine that reason itself is corrupted, depraved, or lost, when it is only borne down, contracted, and its free operations resisted by the contrary weight and power of the appetites and passions. These men act irrationally and destructively in moral conduct, not from the want or deprivation of reason, but from the overbearing strength of appetite, which, while it prevails, will not suffer them to consult their reason or follow its dictates. But let this preternatural force of appetite be taken off, and reason presently resumes and exerts its native strength and vigour, and shines in its own light.Morgan's Physico-Theology.

DCCCCX.

Voluntary Actions.—I conceive, nothing taketh beginning from itself, but from the action of some other immediate agent without itself. And that, therefore, when first a man had an appetite or will to something, to which immediately before he had no appetite or will, the cause of his will is not the will itself, but something else not in

his own disposing. So that whereas it is out of controversy that of voluntary actions the will is a necessary cause; and by this which is said, the will is also caused by other things whereof it disposeth not, it followeth that voluntary actions have all of them necessary causes and therefore are necessitated.-Hobbes on Liberty and Necessity.

DCCCCXI.

Destiny.-Philosophers never stood in need of Homer or the Pharisees, to be convinced that every thing is done by immutable laws, that every thing is settled, that every thing is a necessary effect of some previous cause.— -Vol. taire.

DCCCCXII.

Physical and Moral Qualities.-There are forces in all bodies, some of which cause them to unite, and others to separate. We call these attraction, affinity, adhesion, repulsion, reaction, resistance; but when applied to sentient beings, we vary the names, and denote the same qualities by the words love, friendship, sympathy, hatred, enmity, and antipathy; and we say in common language that the former belong to physical, and the latter to moral beings.-Drummond.

DCCCCXII.

The Introduction of Noble Inventions seems to hold by far the most excellent place among human actions. And this was the judgment of antiquity, which attributed divine honours to inventors, but conferred only heroical ho. nours upon those who deserved well in civil affairs, such

as the founders of empires, legislators, and deliverers of their country. And whoever rightly considers it will find this a judicious custom in former ages, since the benefits of inventors may extend to all mankind, but civil benefits only to particular countries, or seats of men; and these civil benefits seldom descend to more than a few ages, whereas inventions are perpetuated through the course of time. Besides, a state is seldom amended in its civil affairs, without force and perturbation, whilst inventions spread their advantage, without doing injury, or causing disturbance.-Bacon.

DCCCCXIV.

Utility.—That useful knowledge should receive our first and chief care we mean not to dispute. But in our views of utility, we may differ from some who take this position. There are those who confine this term to the necessaries and comforts of life, and to the means of producing them. And is it true that we need no knowledge, but that which clothes and feeds us? Is it true, that all studies may be dispensed with, but such as teach us to act on matter, and to turn it to our use? Happily human nature is too stubborn to yield to this narrow utility. It is interesting to observe how the very mechanical arts, which are especially designed to minister to the necessities and com. forts of life, arc perpetually passing these limits; how they disdain to stop at mere convenience. A large and increasing proportion of mechanical labour is given to the gratification of an elegant taste. How simple would be the art of building, if it limited itself to the construction

of a comfortable shelter. How many ships should we dismantle, and how many busy trades put to rest, were dress and furniture reduced to the standard of convenience. This "utility" would work great changes in town and country, would level to the dust the wonders of architecture, would annihilate the fine arts and blot out innumerable beauties, which the hand of taste has spread over the face of the earth. Happily human nature is too strong for the utilitarian. It cannot satisfy itself with the convenient. No passion unfolds itself sooner than the love of the orna. mental. The savage decorates his person, and the child is more struck with the beauty than the uses of its raiment. So far from limiting ourselves to convenient food and raiment, we enjoy but little repast which is not arranged with some degree of order and taste; and a man who should consult comfort alone in his wardrobe, would find himself an unwelcome guest in circles which he would very reluctantly forego. We are aware that the propensity to which we have referred, often breaks out in extravagant and ruinous luxury. We know that the love of ornament is often vitiated by vanity, and that when so perverted, it impairs, sometimes destroys, the soundness and simplicity of the mind, and the relish for true glory. Still, it teaches, even in its excesses, that the idea of beauty is an indestructive principle of our nature, and this single truth is enough to put us on our guard against vulgar notions of utility.-W. E. Channing, D. D.

DCCCCXV.

Cardinal Bellarmine patiently and humbly allowed fleas and other odious vermin to prey upon him. We shall have heaven, said he, to reward us for our sufferings: but