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British Foreign Policies and the

1878

Present War

By Thomas G. Frothingham

"A free outlet for the undeveloped resources of Russia would have given England the trade of the world. England should have given Constantinople to Russia."

T

HE above was the comment of the writer's father on the terms of the Congress of Berlin, (1878.) My father was of an old firm of Mediterranean merchants. This great sea from ancient days has been the pulsating heart of the commerce of the world, and in the seventies its merchants were wise beyond their generation.

These words have proved propheticand the results of England's mistake are far-reaching. Her conduct, which led to the Congress of Berlin, made Germany a dominating power in Europe and maintained the Turkish Empire. Both were intended to be buffers against imaginary Russian encroachments-and both are now vindictively fighting against England.

The Past in a New Light England had emerged from her period of stress through the first half of the eighteenth century with the strongest national life of all the nations. From the adventurers of the Elizabethan times, through the stern assertion of the nation by Cromwell, and from the seafaring colonists of England, there had sprung a national growth unique in history. There were lapses under the indolent Stuarts, but the trend had been toward maritime and colonial supremacy. The last half of the eighteenth century saw England with the dominion of the seas and enlarged colonial possessions.

England strained her resources in the Napoleonic wars, but it is doubtful if her course was altogether wise. She came out of these wars with an apparent increase of prestige and power on the sea. But all her influence had been thrown to

revive the empires of Europe. Of these Prussia, Austria, and Russia were destined to have an evil effect on England's future, Prussia and Austria as enemies and Russia as an imaginary foe, against whom England has wasted her energies for a hundred years.

After the downfall of Napoleon there was for England a long time of great prosperity and increased power. England seemed to have gained all her ends, and, with her established command of the seas and consequent control of commerce, she seemed assured of the commercial supremacy of the world.

Unfounded Suspicion of Russia

But after the war of 1828-29 between Turkey and Russia, which resulted in the independence of Greece, (announced by Turkey in 1830,) there grew up in the British mind a great suspicion of Russia and hostility against, Russian occupation of Constantinople. A more false position would have been hard for England to find. As the commercial clearing house of the world and the great common carrier, she would have been assured of Russia's trade, and the development of Russia would have opened great markets for English goods-but all England could see was the bogey of military Russia.

This unreasoning opposition to Russia became a mania with the English, and the resultant harm to England can only be measured by the present war.

It is hard to justify the attitude of the men who controlled the destinies of England. Instead of realizing that the opening of the Dardanelles to Russia meant a flood of wealth to England, Russia was pictured as an avalanche ready to overwhelm British interests in the Near and Far East.

All this was entirely at variance with the characteristics of the Slav. Yet the

"Eastern question" in British eyes became a question of anything to serve as a barrier against Russia. The relations between England and the French Empire became very cordial, and these two powers in the Crimean war (1854) saved the Turkish Empire from the onslaught of Nicholas I. of Russia and maintained Turkish rule over the outlet from the Black Sea.

In view of the lesson that England has received and her recent views, as given out by Balfour, it is really pathetic to realize that England went to war in 1854 to prevent the independence of Serbia, Bosnia, and Bulgaria, the provisional occupation of Constantinople, and a Russian protectorate of the Christians of the Greek Church in the Turkish Empire! Yet such is the fact and shutting up Russia in the Black Sea was actually regarded as a British triumph! The result of the war was to leave Russia crippled and constricted behind the barriers of the Dardanelles. All her vast commercial possibilities were lost to England. From this time on it was a repetition of the same story. All England's efforts were concentrated on trying to hem in Russia.

British Politics to Blame

No great democratic nation with the vitality of England would have been so blind to its real interests if there had not been some factor that befogged the public mind. This is found in the machinery of English politics. Members of Parliament are not elected for any definite term of office. The only limitation to the life of a Parliament is the sevenyear provision of the Septennial act of 1716. Consequently, a Government is not placed in power for any term of office, nor is it dependent on representatives elected at stated times. On the contrary, the Ministry has tenure of office as long as it can command a majority of Parliament. This makes any Government a target for the Opposition, and the result has been a constant effort to raise a "question” on which the Ministry in office might be defeated. This system has led to the manufacture of issues, to the rise and fall of Ministers from artificially pumped up

questions," and this accounts for the long tenure in office of such "statesmen" as Palmerston, Russell, Disraeli, and Salisbury. Almost all of England's mistakes in the Victorian period are branded with the names of these menand all were acclaimed as victories at the time.

A constant stream of useless issues attracted the attention of the British public, and kept England from seeing the real stakes in the great game she was playing her supremacy of the world through control of the sea and unrestricted commerce. If it had not been for the constant bickering over what were then considered the important politics of Parliament, the public mind of England would surely have grasped Great Britain's real interests abroad, of which the most important was freeing commerce for England's profit.

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The "Eastern question became a distorted fetich, to which were rificed England's treasures gained through her greatest era. Palmerston, Russell, Disraeli, and Salisbury were the high priests of this cult, and by catchwords and incantations deluded their followers to disaster.

German Growth Stimulated

With Russia shut in as a result of the Crimean war, there followed the most mistaken period of English history. The projects of Louis Napoleon were given full headway-and the aggrandizement of Prussia was unrestrained.

England encouraged Denmark to the breaking point in the Schleswig-Holstein question in 1864-and then left Denmark to lose both provinces, which were acquired by Prussia after the war of 1866.

All this greatly strengthened Prussia. A look at the map will show that these provinces made possible the great double naval base connected by the Kiel Canal, which has proved of such great value to Germany in the present war. Lord John Russell presided over this inexcusable foreign policy,* which made Prussia a

Black is the ingratitude of mankind! There is no statue of Lord Russell, the great benefactor, the true founder of the German Navy, standing Unter den Linden in Berlin.Lord Redesdale.

dangerous power in Europe, with a military equipment perfected in the war of 1866. Louis Napoleon dragged unprepared France into fighting this wellarmed antagonist-and the victorious war of 1870 created a united Germany.

The impetus of the united strength of Germany evolved from the war of 1870 has never been understood by outside nations. For Germans the war of 1870 has been their text and their inspiration. The next generation of Germans modeled the life of Germany, military, civic, commercial, scientific, and social, on the efficiency of the war of 1870. This is the key to united Germany, and the fact that its States are united should not be any longer doubted.

Nor is it reasonable to think of Germany as merely ruled by a military caste. On the contrary, Germany has made itself a remorseless machine with a full belief in the efficiency of such a system. But the whole mechanism is interlocked with militarism, and if her armies fail to win victory, faith in the structure will disappear. Then there will be a new order in Germany.

With all this great potential national life, Germany emerged from the war of 1870 poor in financial resources. Germany had practically spent in advance the indemnity exacted from France. The French Nation made a wonderful revival from this tax and became prosperous at once, but Germany was hard pressed for funds for her development.

In the meantime Russia had recovered her strength, and the new revolt of the Balkan Slavs (1875-76) had again aroused her to action. The fearful toll of massacre taken by Turkey from Bulgaria caused a great sensation in England, but the Disraeli Government, in power at the time, set against this the "ambitions" of Russia, and England resumed her task as watchdog of the Turkish Empire in Constantinople.

Britain's Greatest Mistake

It is comment enough on the intelligence of British politics at the time to note that the overturn in Parliament, resulting in placing the Disraeli Ministry in power, came from "the question of university education in Ireland." From

this petty issue Disraeli and Salisbury were evolved as England's representatives in the Congress of Berlin, (1878,) the greatest of all England's mistakes in her history.

In the Russo-Turkish war, Russia had broken down the obstinate resistance of the Turks. Her victorious army was advancing on Constantinople, and it was evident at the end of 1877 that the Turks would not be able to save the city. With this victorious advance of the Russians came great alarm in misguided England, and there was a cry to save Constantinople. This was the outbreak of the "jingo" policy. The atrocities in Bulgaria were forgotten, and all who said that Turkey was not England's ward were ignored.

Disraeli fanned these fires to the utmost. Early in 1878 the neutral British Ambassador was recalled from Constantinople and a strong pro-Turk was substituted. The British fleet was ordered to the Dardanelles and a war credit of £6,000,000 was asked of Parliament.

In the meantime Turkey had sued for peace, (Agreement of Adrianople, Jan. 31, 1878,) but England maintained her hostile attitude, and in the Peace of San Stefano (March 3, 1878) Russia did not make the occupation of Constantinople a condition. Serbia, Montenegro, and Rumania were freed from Turkey. Bulgaria remained tributary to the Porte, but received a Christian Prince.

These terms were unsatisfactory to England, and she still threatened war, having made a secret treaty (June 4) to protect Turkey against Russian conquest. For this England was to receive Cyprus, (occupied July 11, 1878.) Germany was secured as a mediator, and the representatives of the powers met at the Congress of Berlin, (June 13-July 13,) under the Presidency of Prince Bismarck-an ominous choice to preside over the settlement of Great Britain's destinies!

Errors of Berlin Congress

By the terms of the treaties drawn up at the Congress of Berlin the Balkan States received less territory than in the Peace of San Stefano. Russia was left still cut off from the Dardanelles. Ger

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A French Dirigible Watching for Submarines That Are Under Water, and Calling Destroyers by Wireless

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A French Naval Seaplane Which Can Rise Into the Air and Destroy Submarines by Means of Special Bombs

(French Official War Record)

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