A NEW COLLEGE TEXT

THE HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL EUROPE

By DR. LYNN THORNDIKE

Associate Professor of History, Western Reserve University
With the editorial assistance of
Professor J. T. SHOTWELL, Columbia University

SOME SPECIAL FEATURES

Embodies results of recent scholarship.

Special emphasis on economic and social conditions.

Pictures concretely the daily life of the people of the middle ages.

Portrays the interesting story of the building of the modern European nations.

Study suggestions at the close of each chapter. Unusually full equipment of colored, and black and white maps.

THIS important new textbook treats the medieval period not from the English, or French, or German point of view, but from that of the impartial historian considering medieval Europe as a whole. It avoids excessive detail of fact and at the same time includes ample illustrative detail to make the book interesting to students, give them a clear idea of the development of the more important European states, and impress upon them the great personalities of medieval times. Ready in the Fall.

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Bobbie is just an ordinary American boy. He is nearly fourteen and is about ready to enter high school. In scholarship he is below rather than above the average; but he is usually interested in his lessons, and his father is not worrying about his ability to make good. He enjoys sports, games and outdoor life, and like all true boys he loves to tinker with tools. He has shown an unusual affection for animals and will make a pet of anything from an antiquated hen to a tadpole.

Perhaps it was his sensitiveness to the suffering of animals which led us to avoid talking about the Great War when he was near. Perhaps it was because we felt, like most American parents, that the War was monstrous, insensate, something too horrible to bring into the consciousness of a happy whole-souled boy of fourteen. We were thankful that a regulation of the local board of education forbade the discussion of the War in school rooms. And we tried to keep away from him the more terrible of the pictures which soon filled the illustrated papers.

But in the two years of warfare he has grown to take an interest in things. At times he read the daily newspapers and looked through the illustrated weeklies. He became interested in the War in spite of us and occasionally dropped a remark which showed he was forming opinions upon it. He shared his spending money with the Belgians whenever the family took up a collection from the children's banks and the parents' bank accounts for relief work.

And then like every normal American child he asked questions about the War. At first we put him off with those general colorless and neutral answers which parents are so skilled in framing. But we found that he was getting false notions of the War from other sources. We reached the conclusion that if we did not furnish the truth he might never get it. And thus we set about answering carefully some of his questions. Six of these questions and answers are here given. They are arranged in a logical order rather than in the haphazard conversation of family life.

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history. The one set of causes is like the spark that falls among gunpowder and makes a great explosion; the other set of causes explains how the gunpowder came to be where it was, and how the spark came to fall upon the gunpowder.

The spark which set off the present terrible explosion in Europe was a little incident which took place in southeastern Europe. In the region between Vienna and Constantinople, which you can easily find on the map, there exist a score or more of different peoples. Each of these has its own language, its own dress, and its own habits of living. These peoples are included in a few great governments-AustroHungary, Servia, Roumania, Bulgaria and Turkeywith several smaller ones. During the year 1912 several of these countries tried to obtain the lands of the non-Christian Turks, and after they defeated the Turks, the victors started to quarrel among themselves about the division of the lands. This gave the Turks an opportunity to get back part of their territory. During this time some of the less important peoples under the rule of Austro-Hungary also conspired to obtain their independence. On June 28, 1914, an Austrian prince, the heir to the throne, was murdered in Serajevo, in a country much dissatisfied with Austrian government. An investigation by Austrians showed to their satisfaction that the murder had been planned in the neighboring country of Servia.

Austria immediately made demands upon Servia which, if accepted, would have destroyed the independence of Servia and have tended to make it a province of Austria. The demands were accompanied with a threat that if not accepted in forty-eight hours, Austria would invade Servia. When this threat became known in Russia, the latter country took steps to protect Servia. Germany backed up Austria. England tried to get all parties to demobilize their armies and submit the Servian question to a council of all the great nations. This Germany and Austria refused to do and on August 1, 1914, war was declared by Germany against Russia. This at once brought France into the war as Russia's ally, and a few days later England entered on account of the German invasion of Belgium. Thus the murder of the Austrian prince was the spark which set on fire the vast European powder magazine.

But you ask why was Europe so combustible that a single murder would set it all afire? Who laid the gunpowder in a place where the spark would reach

it? To understand this, Bobbie, you would have to study carefully the history of Europe for the past hundred years. But there are a few things which you can understand.

1. Years ago Germany adopted a system of universal military service which created a great standing army. This made the other countries so afraid of her that for protection they were compelled to maintain similar armies. Thus all of Europe, except England, became a kind of military camp; military leaders, particularly in Germany, directed the activities of the nations, and often prevented the people from governing themselves. This system, which is called militarism, is the thing which President Wilson says must be destroyed if all nations are to be free.

2. Germany, like England and the United States, has grown enormously in wealth, manufactures and commerce in the last forty years. She secured a large part of the trade of the world, and her shipssome of the largest ever built-were found in all the great harbors of the world. But Germany was not content with this peaceful trade; she desired foreign colonies and a great navy like that of England; she longed for coaling stations in all seas. If it had not been for the United States she might have obtained the Philippines in 1898; but for the United States she, with the other European states, would have brought about the partition of China in 1901; and but for the Monroe Doctrine she would have established colonies in the West Indies and South America. As it was she secured islands in the Pacific, in the East Indies and large tracts of land in Africa. With the consent of Turkey she started to build a railroad from Constantinople to Bagdad. During this expansion if Germany did not get what she wished she would show the "mailed fist" of her great army and rattle the sword in the scabbard. She would insult others as the German Admiral insulted Dewey in Manila harbor. Europe was in a state of unrest because Germany would not consent to reduce the size of her army nor cease building up a navy. Thus England felt compelled to build more ships; France must add another year of military service to every man's life; Austria, Russia and Italy joined in the race, and tried to keep up the pace set by the leaders.

3. During this period of armed peace the six great nations of Europe fell apart into two groups of three each. Germany, Austria and Italy made what was called the "Triple Alliance"; while England, France and Russia constituted the "Triple Entente" (the word entente is a French word meaning an understanding or agreement). The two groups stood and glared at each other like two gangs of toughs, each daring the other to do its worst. Sooner or later something would be said or done which would bring on a fight between the two groups. But note that when the Great War did break out, Italy left the Triple Alliance and joined the other group, which we now call "the Allies."

4. There were many other things which led the European nations to be jealous of one another. France wanted to get back provinces which Germany had

taken from her in 1870. Russia wanted to get Constantinople so that her wheat and oil could safely be exported. Germany wanted to control Constantinople and a railroad to Bagdad and the Persian Gulf, thus securing a share in the trade with India and China ports; Austria wished to annex some of the petty states to the southeast, and Italy hoped to annex territory near her borders inhabited by men of the Italian

race.

You will see, therefore, Bobbie, that it was not the murder of a prince which really caused this War. It was the existence of a class of military men who controlled the governments of some of the powers; who refused to let the people decide great questions, and who hoped to use armies and navies to obtain more lands by conquest.

WHY ARE WE IN THE WAR?

"Yes, Dad, I understand now how the War hapWe pened in Europe. But why did we go into it? studied in school that Washington, Jefferson and Monroe advised the United States to keep out of EuWhat has made us take up arms ropean affairs. against Germany?”

In the first place, Bobbie, you must remember that the American government is based upon the right of the people to govern themselves. Lincoln said we possessed "government of the people, for the people, and by the people." We believe that all people of all countries ought to have this right. And we are willing to help them obtain this greatest of all rights. Some people have said the American nation pays too much attention to making money and that it worships the "almighty dollar." But this is not true to-day and probably never has been true of our nation as a whole. Nearly a hundred years ago we sympathized with the people of Central and South America in their rebellion against Spain, and protected them by the Monroe Doctrine after they had obtained independence.

In the last twenty years particularly the American nation has played the part of a "big brother" to many other peoples. In 1895 we protected Venezuela against the aggression of England. In 1898 we fought a war for the independence of Cuba and we have since aided in supporting an orderly self-government in the island. In 1898 we secured possession of the Philippines, and we have governed them since in the interests of the inhabitants, and have instructed them in the work of government so that some day they may become an independent nation. In 1901 we helped to prevent the European nations from dividing up China. Our share of the indemnity exacted from China has been used to educate Chinese students in American universities. We have earnestly supported the new republic in that country. From 1912 to the present time we have tried to encourage the Mexicans to establish a people's government. American lives have been lost and millions of dollars' worth of American property destroyed in Mexico in this period during their civil wars. But we have not desired to con

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quer the country; we want them to establish a government which will bring liberty to all Mexicans and protection for all foreigners. In 1915 we opened the Panama Canal to the commerce of the whole world, not claiming for American vessels any advantages over foreign vessels, although our government furnished all the $250,000,000 necessary to build the canal. you will remember these things you will understand how the United States stands to-day not only as the wealthiest country in the world, not only as the most democratic of great powers, but also as the friend of the oppressed and the willing helper of peoples striving for the same kind of liberty.

But now to return to our entrance into this War. When the War started in August, 1914, most Americans were willing to follow the old advice of Washington, Jefferson and Monroe. They thought the War was Europe's business, not ours, and that we should keep out of the whole affair. But as the months of warfare dragged on and as unlawful acts and inhumane forms of warfare were used more and more by the Germans, the American people, gradually realized that the War was an attack upon the rights of all liberty-loving peoples. The German military system (not the German people, but their Kaiser, their rulers and their military men) was seen to be a danger to all free governments. England, France, Russia, Italy, Servia, Belgium, Japan, Roumania, even little Portugal, were straining every nerve, sacrificing their ablest men, in the cause of human freedom. Should the United States enjoy the benefits when victory came to the Allies, and not raise a hand to help them in their life and death struggle? All the history of the last twenty years showed that it was the duty of the United States to leave its old narrow American policy and join the Allies in their efforts to destroy the evils of German militarism.

You should note, Bobbie, and remember some of the acts of the Germans which led the American people at last to believe that this militarism must be crushed:

1. The Germans invaded Belgium in order to advance upon France in a place where the French were not expecting attack. Germany did this despite the fact that she had solemnly promised to respect Belgium's lands. She violated "Belgium's neutrality" and treated her own promise as a "scrap of paper."

2. The Germans occupied Belgium and northeastern France, and established a merciless government over the inhabitants. Atrocities of many kinds were inflicted upon the people; food supplies and cattle were taken away and the people would have starved by hundreds of thousands if energetic Americans and others had not collected money and supplies from various nations and dispensed them to the people under the eyes of the German military officers. Ablebodied men and women were dragged from their children and parents and sent to Germany to work almost as slaves for their conquerors. The world cannot soon forget the horrors of this military rule in Belgium.

3. The Lusitania, an unarmed passenger steamer, was torpedoed by a submarine without warning on

May 7, 1915, and eleven hundred and thirty-four men, women and children passengers and members of the crew lost their lives, of whom over one hundred were American citizens.

4. Unarmed merchant vessels of the United States and of other neutrals were torpedoed without warning, and many innocent persons, in no way connected with the War, were killed in violation of international law and of the common principles of humanity.

5. Germany issued an order to be effective February 1, 1917, that any vessel of any nationality found by her submarines within hundreds of miles of the European coast should be sunk without warning.

6. She bombarded defenceless towns in England and France with warships and with Zeppelins, injuring mainly women and children.

7. She organized bomb plots in the United States. against American factories, and tried to involve us in war with Mexico and Japan.

8. In general she tried to make her methods of warfare so terrible that her enemies would be frightened into submission. This is what the Germans call the policy of Schrecklichkeit (frightfulness).

These are horrible things to tell to a boy of your age, Bobbie, and we would not tell you about them were it not that you must understand how boys and girls in Europe and on peaceful vessels on the sea have been treated by this German war machine. You must not begin to hate the German people; and particularly you must treat respectfully and kindly the hundreds of thousands of law-abiding persons in this country who are of German birth or descent. We do not make war on the German people, but upon those military rulers who have threatened to destroy all that other persons love and cherish. Out of pity for these oppressed peoples and out of fear for our own liberties we must unite with the other nations to stop this reign of lawlessness.

A DIFFERENT WAR FROM ALL OTHERS?

"I wish I knew what the newspapers mean by say ing this War is different from other ones. To-day there are guns and cannons and battles as in our Civil War. Is it really different?"

Yes, Bobbie, looked at simply as warfare, this War is different from all that have preceded it. It is different in its world-wide extent. It has spread from Europe to the interior of Africa, to the Samoan Islands in the Pacific, to Bagdad, the city of the Arabian Nights, and to the American continents. No war in history was ever carried on over such a vast territory.

It is different, too, in the number of people engaged. The total population of the countries now engaged in the war is almost one thousand million persons. The armies in the field in Europe to-day, numbering their millions of soldiers, are as numerous as the entire population of Europe a few centuries. ago. The world never saw such armies, and indeed never before these days could such armies have been fed and equipped.