IN THE HISTORY TEACHER'S MAGAZINE for April, 1917, appeared a group of articles on the elementary college course in history. Concerning the field of such a course, Prof. A. B. Show, of Stanford, observed: “Every man is fully persuaded in his own eyes that the thing which he is doing is the best thing to do." This sentence led me immediately to write a letter (published in the MAGAZINE for September) explaining that at Louisiana State University the history teachers were giving not the course they considered best, but that which they found most practical. Inquiries for a fuller exposition of this practical" course induced me to impose the present paper upon the patience of the editor and his readers.

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For several years Prof. Walter L. Fleming gave practically all the history offered at Louisiana State University. The freshman course, as stated in the catalogue was: "History 1-2: Essentials of History: (1) Orient, Greece and Rome; (2) Medieval and Modern Times." Substantially the same as that offered in most other colleges, this course was required of all freshmen in the College of Arts and Sciences and in the Teachers' College, and was an elective for agricultural and engineering students. Once in a while a law student took it. At the time I became affiliated with this institution (1912), Doctor Fleming was using as texts in History 1-2, Seignobos' Ancient Civilization," followed by Robinson's Western Europe." These were used through the session of 1915-1916. Doctor Fleming and I were in perfect accord in holding that as a "background” background" for political science, economics, sociology, law, literature; as a preparation for further work in history, and as an introduction to college methods of study, and the use of the library, a course in general history is the best for the beginners-freshmen, in this case. As to the method-we also agreed perfectly that formal lecturing is not the best one for freshmen. Accordingly we had our students recite upon the text, make oral and written reports upon assigned topics, and hand in a weekly summary or outline of the collateral reading done the previous week. Occasional tests and quizzes were given. Hardly once a term was a whole period consumed by a lecture, though the instructors commented upon the recitations, supplemented and explained the texts. For the session of 1914-15, Professor Fleming dropped Seignobos at the beginning of the session, and added contemporary history, based upon periodicals, at the end. I continued to use both Seignobos and Robinson.

Like every other state, Louisiana has a varied assortment of high schools, ranging from the threeteacher rural school to the fully equipped and

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manned city school. Naturally, the secondary instruction in history varies with the teacher, the size of the class, the library facilities, etc. The first, second and fourth "blocks" recommended by the Committee of Seven are offered by all the schools. No provision is made for English history, and the State Board of Education has not adopted a text in. that subject. We found that while the majority of our freshmen badly needed a course in general history, they did not appreciate that fact. Having had & high school course in medieval and modern history not more than two years before, they could not understand why they should "review" it in college. Hence most showed little interest in the course. Each year we had individual graduates from some schools and whole classes from others who had been so well handled in the secondary course that they might have been permitted to waive History 1-2 had there been any other suitable course to substitute for it.

The catalogue for 1915 announced that during the session of 1915-1916, two divisions of freshmen history would be offered. "History 1-2: Outlines of European History," practically the old "Essentials course, was for students who had not had an unusually good high school course in history. For students who were better prepared, "History 1a-2a: European History with Special Attention to English History," was offered. As the head of the department (Doctor Fleming) was a member of the faculty committee on classification, it was feasible to direct most of the freshmen to the divisions for which they were best suited. Professor Fleming, Dr. C. C. Stroud and I gave the freshman courses this year. Doctor Stroud had only sections of 1-2," Doctor Fleming had only "1a-2a" (I believe), while I had one section of each. Substantially the same methods were used in both divisions, as indicated above for "1-2." Cheyney's "Short History of England" and Kendall's "Source Book were the texts in 1a-2a." Through parallel reading and the comments of the teacher, it was sought to give the general" ramifications and background needed for a college course.

Though Cheyney's book is not exactly a college text, as it was not used in the high schools of the state, and no other of a suitable nature and price was then obtainable, we felt warranted in using it, and the event justified us. The increased interest, the additional zeal displayed by students in "1a-2a" convinced us that the experiment certainly merited a further trial. During the session of 1916-1917, then, both divisions were given again, one section of each being given by Doctor Fleming and myself. As

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stated in the letter mentioned above, I made a comparison of the results of the mid-year examinations in my two sections. Though I was personally more interested in '1-2," and had a smaller section thereof, that in la-2a" did better. Of twentyseven students in "1," only eighteen, or 66 2-3 per cent., passed the examination; thirty out of thirtytwo, or 93 per cent. plus, passed in la." Professor Fleming's experience was similar. Of course, not all of this difference could be attributed to the difference in courses: la" had a better prepared set of students, to begin with. Doctor Fleming had discontinued the use of Kendall's "Source Book," this session, which enabled him to complete the work in English history sooner, and finish the session for his section with a rapid summary of modern history.

In the light of two years' experience with the two divisions, we felt compelled to announce in the catalogue of 1917 only one course for the present session. This is "History 1-2. English and Continental European History," which "is designed to take up the work in history where the high school work ends. Since high schools in Louisiana place special emphasis upon classical, medieval and American history, the plan of this course is to emphasize the history of England and of modern Europe. During the first term, while not neglecting continental history, the work of the class is centered upon the history of England to the close of the seventeenth century. The second term is devoted to eighteenth and nineteenth century history, English and continental."

The resignation of Doctor Fleming, to accept the chair of history at Vanderbilt, has devolved all the freshman work for this session upon me. I have found it expedient to reduce the number of sections to three, in which I am endeavoring to carry out the specifications just quoted from the catalogue, on the line agreed upon by Doctor Fleming and myself. In two of the sections I am using as the text for the first term Larson's Short History of England," and in the third section, Cheyney. I expect to accompany, then follow these, during the second term, with a text in modern European history. By that time, it is believed, the freshmen will have gotten far enough away from high school work and learned enough of college methods to appreciate a college course in modern history.

Now as to methods. The first two weeks of the term were spent in explaining the nature and purpose of the course, methods of study, note-taking, the use of maps, atlases, indices, reference works, etc. The chief contribution of ancient civilization were pointed out, as well as the connection with English history, then the study of the text was begun. Besides the text, each student is required to have a special form of notebook (Blackwell-Wielandy, 809C), which has loose leaves, 712 by 41/2 inches, with a half-inch margin ruled at the top and left of ene side of the sheet. Assignments to the text are made by topics, which are posted in the library, with a list of

parallel references under each. At the first meeting of the class, each week, the notebooks must be handed in, containing an outline of the text, through the current topic, with an outline of the previous week's parallel reading. These outlines are written upon the ruled side of the page, lengthwise. The other side is reserved for class notes, written crosswise. The notebooks are checked up the same day they are handed in, and returned, usually that afternoon, to the students. Notes are taken in accordance with printed "suggestions," of which each student is given a copy. These directions were adopted by me from a similar set to which I was introduced by Dr. F. A. Ogg, of the University of Wisconsin, and Dr. A. I. Andrews, of Tufts College, when all three of us (and Dr. M. W. Tyler, now of the University of Minnesota) taught at Simmons College.

Recitations, based upon the text, are held at each of three meetings each section has weekly. Students are encouraged to amplify their replies with material drawn from their collateral reading. Where it seems necessary, the reply of the student or the statement of the text is commented upon, corrected or supplemented by the instructor. Students are encouraged to add to, but not interrupt one another's answers. Since the sections are large-thirty-two to forty-four students each-and some students are timid or indifferent, others interested and aggressive, careful planning is necessary to ensure that every student has some opportunity to recite each month. Generally, I find it best to make out a list of those to be called upon. This list is not alphabetical, is not arranged according to sexes, and the same student may be called on two days in succession, or even twice during the same period. But by means of it, I manage to give every student, even the most bashful and uninterested, several chances to recite. Of course volunteer additions and corrections are permitted and encouraged, as said above.

For monthly tests, quizzes, term examinations and the like, all students are held responsible for the text and for any additional points brought out in class, whether by students or instructors. Notebooks are again evaluated as part of the final examination. The usual aids, such as blackboards, charts, maps, atlases, genealogical tables, and other illustrations are utilized. Occasionally special events, epochs, characters, documents or characteristics are assigned for written reports. For example, Write a thousandword essay on the synod of Whitby," or the restoration of the coinage by Elizabeth, or Florence of Worcester's Chronicle, or Celtic commerce, or Egbert, etc.

Monthly grades are posted, with explanatory notes, to show the cause of poor ratings, such as unexcused absence, frequent tardiness, poor notebook, failure to hand in reports or notebooks, and the like. Opportunity is given students to discuss their difficulties with the instructor, in order to remedy deficiencies. When written tests are given, every paper is marked in red ink and returned to the student.

Believing that historical events are important—

other things being equal-in direct ratio to their bearing upon present institutions and conditions, every opportunity is seized to connect the past with the present and the local; to correlate the narrative of the text with recent and nearby events or facts, as well as to associate English history with general. For example, to-day (November 5, 1917), in answer to a question about the Venerable Bede a student mentioned that he died in 735. It was pointed out that this was three years after the battle of Tours. This city being located on the map, the Loire was followed up to Orleans, and the obvious connection with New Orleans was supplied by the class. Proceeding back down the river to Nantes, Henri IV, the Edict, Louis XIV and the Revocation, the migration of the Huguenots, some of whom eventually reached Baton Rouge, and have descendants there to-day,

known to the class, were all associated with the lesson of the day.

Part of the first meeting each week is devoted to current events, and a constant effort is made to develop in the student the habit of using daily papers and weekly and monthly magazines, as well as the more formal reference works. It is not a part of the purpose of this paper to discuss methods in current That has already been well done in this

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magazine.

One of the most serious problems of the teacher of ancient history is to make the subject really interesting and practical. One of the recognized fundamental principles of teaching is to tie up the unknown with the known and to teach those subjects which have a social or functioning value. The average student who comes into the high school has few experiences or ideas with which to tie up much of the data that is contained in the average ancient history text-book, and as a result, many students find ancient history dull and lifeless. There are many teachers who are of the opinion that much of the material found in the average ancient history text should be eliminated, and a few in technical or vocational schools contend that ancient history should not be taught at all.

In order to make the ancient history more vitally interesting and lifelike, a number of plans have been. tried at the Atlanta Technological High School, one of which has proved to be a great success. To understand the working of this plan it is necessary to say a word about the aims and purposes of the school where this experiment has been made. The work done in this school is far ahead of that done in the old type of manual training schools. Much intensive. work is done in the semi-vocational subjects, such as elementary mechanics, industrial chemistry, physics, printing, forge shop, cabinet making, pattern making, machine shop, machine design, architectural drawing and concrete work. In addition to these semi-vocational studies thorough work is done in the so-called classical studies, as English, history, Latin, Spanish, spelling, and German. It is the purpose of the school to give thorough training in the fundamental subjects, but at the same time to lay particular stress on those studies which will train the student so that he may enter into the industrial life of the community

and readily become a producing member of society. Many of the students on the completion of the fouryear high school course enter the sophomore class at such schools as the Alabama Polytechnic Institute or the Georgia School of Technology, where they specialize in particular lines of work begun in the high school.

In all courses, in addition to doing the more or less conventional work, special stress is given to those topics which give expression to the ideals of the school. It is sometimes rather difficult to do this with ancient history, but an attempt has been made and considerable progress has resulted. One phase of the ancient history work is the following plan: At suitable times during the year emphasis is placed on the vocational and industrial topics, such as Irrigation Projects of Egypt, The Ship Building Industry of the Phoenicians, The Manufacturing System of the Phoenicians, Construction of Public Buildings by the Greeks and Romans, Road and Bridge Building, Roman Machines, Plumbing, Water Systems, Harbor Improvements, Sewer Construction, Agricultural Implements, the Sciences, and many other allied subjects. In brief, this material may be divided into three parts: Architecture, Mechanics, and Engineering.

In handling these subjects or projects, as we call them, much parallel reading is done in the school and city libraries, where the students work out the details, and sometimes draw rough freehand pencil sketches of the object being studied. These sketches, after being approved by the history teacher, are carried to the drawing hall where they are submitted to the drawing teacher, and after a discussion as to the methods of procedure, a pencil drawing, a tracing, and sometimes a blue print is made. To illustrate the use of the mechanics side-one of the most in

teresting topics studied last year was Roman War Machines. The general principle of the lever was reviewed, the utilization of the lever by Archimedes, the efficiency of the machines such as the battering ram, catapult, onager; triremes were taken up and discussed in class; and how the present European war has led to a revival of the use of many of these machines. Drawings were made of the most important machines, and students afterwards working in groups made small models in the shop. The students also took the general topics of Roman Machines. They found interesting material on Roman pumps, water wheels, plows, carts, reapers, oil mills and grain mills.

The architectural problems of the Greeks and Romans are well adapted to this work. One of the most interesting projects studied was the Greek temple. After the Greek religion had been studied, we took up a rather intensive study of the greatest of Greek temples-the Parthenon. After the ground plan, building materials, lighting, decoration, and other principal features had been discussed in class, the students started on their search for pictures and drawings. Pen and pencil sketches were made of the ground plan, front elevation, cross section, columns, lighting arrangement, pediment, architrave, frieze, and other minor details.

Under engineering projects we made a study of Roman engineering achievements as shown in their bridges, roads, aqueducts, sewers, race-courses, amphitheaters, and monumental arches. We were able to tie up much of this work with local problems.

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The plan has been in full operation only about two years, hence it is hard to evaluate the work in terms of far-reaching results. Some of the immediate results are as follows: It has greatly stimulated a livelier interest in the study of ancient history itself; it has made it easier to get students to do collateral reading; it has enabled us to correlate history with drawing, science, shops, and architecture; it has made it possible to give expression to the aims of the school never before. While this work has been in progress we have found quite a number of students who have talent in architectural drawing. The work begun in the history department has led the drawing department to introduce two courses in architecture, and in co-operation with the history department we are giving a half year course in the history of architecture. Many of the students who have made good records in this work have gone into architect's offices as tracers and assistant draftsmen. A few of the more ambitious students are now studying architecture at schools specializing in this subject.

The following are some of the topics which have been used to advantage where the plan has been tried:

1. Oriental history-the Great Pyramid, Xerxes' Bridge across the Hellespont, Temple of Luxor, Tomb of Cyrus the Great, irrigation in Egypt, and a Persian chariot.

2. Greek History-Lions' Gate at Mycena, plan of the City of Athens, Parthenon, Greek house, Greek

orders of architecture, oil mills, plan of the City of Alexandria, harbor and town of Piræus, an Athenian trireme, and Greek theatres.

3. Roman History-An Etruscan arch, Roman military standards and insignia, bridges, aqueducts, military roads, Cæsar's bridge across the Rhine, amphitheatres, war machines, Colosseum, Roman orders of architecture, Pantheon, agricultural implements, Roman homes, military camps, Circus Maximus, Trajan's column, and public bath-houses. The following sources contain pictures and historical data on the subjects indicated:

In emphasizing the contribution of the Greeks to art, literature, and philosophy, we are inclined to minimize their vast advances in government and society. It is clear that their Minoan predecessors in Crete lived under the same absolutism as the dwellers on the Nile, and that the germs of the republic were introduced into Greece by the "Indo-European invaders. We find accordingly in the "Iliad of Homer strong Minoan traditions of despotism mingled with the actualities of an aristocratic republic, in which the king is straitly limited by the nobles. The "Odyssey" presents at Ithaca a picture of a kingless country misruled by a group of turbulent aristocrats. Here are glimpses of the process by which, in the civilized world, the republic came into being. The loving care of the king for his people, like that of a father for his children, vanished along with the monarch; and both Hesiod and Solon bitterly complain of the hard-hearted nobles evilly banded for the exploitation of the masses.

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Meanwhile the gradual diffusion of economic prosperity and of intelligence, involving military and political ambitions, over a widening circle of the population tended to broaden, the civic franchise. process continued till in progressive States like Athens democracy was established. Whereas the policy of the aristocratic régime had been to reduce the commons to serfdom or actual slavery, the more liberal governments, and generally in proportion to their advancement toward democracy, aimed in various ways to lift the submerged classes to the plane of respectable citizenship. We find this policy especially successful in Periclean Attica; nowhere else in Greece were the farmers so prosperous; and there was a total absence of paupers outside the physically unfit. As the resources of the community, however, were limited, a humanitarian policy militated against the admission of aliens to the citizenship, while religious feeling which identified God with Blood cooperated in favor of an exclusive citizen body.

It has sometimes been urged that the Athenians lived in ease at the expense of others-slaves, alien residents, and tributary allies-and were therefore

not democratic in any modern sense. In answer it may be said that careful inspection shows the great majority of Athenians gaining all or a large part of their living by the labor of their hands, and, in contrast with oligarchs, treating both slaves and resident aliens with notable gentleness and humanity. As regards the allies, the majority in every State preferred the rule of Athens to independence, a condition in which they would have been open to foreign con

quest and subject to exploitation at the hands of their own oligarchs. In a word, the attitude of the Athenian majority toward these less privileged classes was one of increasing benevolence, which, reinforced by the levelling principles of sophistic teaching, contained the germ of a universal democracy. The political development from the seventh to the fourth century B. C. made increasingly for the improvement, not only of citizen laborers, but of all less privileged classes with which the government came into contact. In the fourth century progress was delayed, and the State weakened, by socialistic experimentation. It was at this time that, mainly through democratic development, the laboring classes reached a height of political, social, and economic well-being to which they did not again attain till comparatively recent times.

That no further advance took place is obviously due in the main to the encroachment of imperialism; for the notion that Hellenic democracy had reached the limit of its capability is absurd; it is in fact an error of modern historical logic to demand that the Greeks should have accomplished in decades what we have achieved through the struggles of centuries, and to assume that the very founders of political life were alone of all men incapable of learning by experience.

The military monarchy of Philip and Alexander served merely as a transition to the Hellenistic age. In this new condition many a Greek city-state, shorn of its independence, became practically a municipality in a great kingdom. Patronized as a rule by the king, it enjoyed local freedom on sufferance only. The environment of these communities and of those which lay outside the kingdoms was such as to foster perpetual fear and servility. Notwithstanding many exhibitions of generous or of heroic character in states and individuals, the historian is compelled to regret a general decline in manliness with the passing of the older freedom.

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Different was the condition of those Greeks who left their native land to undertake private business throughout the Hellenistic kingdoms, or to assist the kings in the administration of their realms, or to settle as military colonists on the kings' lands. economically well with those Hellenes who could join. the class of exploiters of a conquered population, but ill enough with the considerable number who sooner or later sank to the condition of subjects. There was an appreciable deterioration of the laboring class. from the fourth century to the Hellenistic age-due largely to a lapse of interest on the part of the gov