Author of the Declaration of American Independance & Father of the University of Virginia? because by these, as testimonials that I have lived, I wish most t my on the Dia might be engraved FACSIMILE OF INSCRIPTION WRITTEN BY JEFFERSON FOR HIS TOMBSTONE. utterly unable to cope with that of Great Britain, and furthermore, he had an innate aversion to war. He, therefore, recommended to Congress that an embargo be laid on American commerce, maintaining that it was better to keep American ships at home than to send them out with the certainty of capture. The Embargo Act was promptly passed December 22, 1807, prohibiting absolutely the departure of American ships for foreign ports. It was thought that this act would compel England and France to modify their orders and decrees. Opposition to the embargo and The Embargo Act raised a storm of opposition in New England, where it was practically nullified, and hence produced little effect on either France or England. Shipowners preferred to assume the risk of sending their ships abroad rather than to see them rot in port, and when a ship did elude capture the profits of the voyage were great. revival of New Eng land Federalism In the presidential election of 1808 Madison, who was Jefferson's choice for the succession, received 122 electoral votes, and C. C. Pinckney, the Federalist candi- Election of date, 47. The Republican majority in Congress Madison to was, however, greatly reduced, for the embargo the presihad made New England almost solidly Federalist dency, 1808 again. John Quincy Adams supported Jefferson's embargo policy, and as a result lost his seat in the United States Senate. He now allied himself with his father's old enemies, the Republicans, and soon gained recognition as one of their party leaders. Repeal of the embargo and passage of the Non After the election Jefferson and Madison could no longer control the Republican majority in Congress, and shortly before the close of Jefferson's term an act was passed repealing the embargo, the repeal to take effect March 15, 1809. In its place the Nonintercourse Act was passed, prohibiting commer- intercourse cial intercourse with Great Britain and France, Act, 1809 but leaving American ships free to sail to other ports, and authorizing the president to reëstablish commercial relations with whichever of the two nations should first suspend or repeal its orders or decrees. Before the close of Jefferson's administration a new British minister, Erskine, was sent to Washington. He was favorably disposed to the United States and alarmed at the growing hostility to England. He offered reparation for the attack on the Chesapeake and the withdrawal of the Orders in Council, provided the United States would suspend the Non-intercourse Act with England and agree to comply with the rule of 1756. These terms were more liberal Diplomatic negotiations with England, 18091810 JAMES MADISON. than his instructions warranted, and the treaty which he signed was promptly repudiated by the British government. Erskine was recalled and Jackson was sent over to take his place. The new minister was unfriendly and overbearing in manner, and when Madison demanded to be shown his full powers he replied in such offensive language that the president refused to have further intercourse with him. The British government re garded Jackson's conduct as indiscreet, and some months later recalled him. The tortuous policy pursued by Napoleon at this period. is very difficult to follow, but his object was to deceive President Madison by pretending to repeal his Diplomatic negotiations decrees and to force a war between the United with France States and England. As soon as he learned of the Erskine agreement he announced the withdrawal of the Milan decree, but when he heard that the agreement had bee repudiated by the British government he secretly ordered the seizure of all American ships found in European ports under his control. In May, 1810, Congress repealed the Non-intercourse Act and authorized the president, in case either France or England should withdraw their decrees or orders, to prohibit commerce with the other at the end of three months. Napoleon then informed the American minister that the Berlin and Milan decrees would not be enforced after November 1. In accordance with the act of Congress President Madison issued a proclamation on November 2 announcing that commercial intercourse with Great Britain would cease on February 2, 1811. Napoleon had not acted in good faith, and it was soon evident that American vessels were still subject to unlawful restrictions and seizure. England, therefore, refused to modify her orders. President and the British ships continued the practice of impressing American seamen, and in May, 1811, Captain John Rodgers, commanding the frigate President, was ordered from Encounter Chesapeake Bay to the Jersey coast to protect between the American vessels from interference by the British frigate Guerrière. On the way he found himself Little Belt, followed by a vessel which he mistook for the May, 1811 Guerrière, but which turned out to be the Little Belt. About sunset as he overtook her a shot struck the President. Broadsides were then exchanged and the Little Belt was seriously injured. Each side disclaimed responsibility for the first shot, but Captain Rodgers was exonerated by his government and the British government let the incident pass. The American people, however, made no effort to conceal their joy and regarded the incident as a retribution for the Chesapeake-Leopard affair. During the early years of the nineteenth century the frontier was being rapidly extended westward, and the government could not persuade the Indians to relinquish their lands rapidly enough to satisfy the more enterprising settlers. In 1811 the Indian chief Tecumseh, who had Harrison defeats the Indians of the Northwest at the battle of Tippecanoe, November, 1811 already organized the tribes of the Northwest for resistance, went to the South for the purpose of forming a general league with the Indians in that quarter. During his absence General William Henry Harrison, Governor of Indiana Territory, advanced with a force of 800 men to occupy a region recently ceded to the government. In November, 1811, he encountered a force of Indians on the Tippecanoe Creek in western Indiana and after a bloody fight drove them from the field. The Indians had secured their arms and ammunition in Canada, and it was generally believed that the British authorities had incited them to acts of hostility. Harrison became the popular hero of the Northwest, and nearly thirty years later was elected president of the United States. Declaration of war, June 18, 1812 The Twelfth Congress, which met in extra session November 4, 1811, was dominated by the younger group of Republicans, who elected Henry Clay of Kentucky as speaker. New England was strongly opposed to war and the Middle States were divided, but the South and West controlled the action of Congress and a war program was pushed through that body. The president knew that the country was unprepared for war with a great naval power like England, but no other course seemed open to him, so he carried into effect the policy of the younger and more enthusiastic leaders of his party. On June 1 he finally sent a message to Congress, in which he enumerated the grievances against England: the insolent conduct of British cruisers in searching American vessels on American coasts, the impressment of American seamen, the Orders in Council, the seizure of American ships, and the intrigues with the Indians of the Northwest. On June |