Just how much emphasis should be placed on labor interests is a matter of vigorous present-day discussion. Under the individualistic, laissez-faire policy of England in the nineteenth century, laborers were left to the mercy of free competition, without the right to combine for joint purposes. The results were disastrous and the chartist movement (1838-9) with its six demands 13 was the turning point towards the newer systems of recognized trade unions. Trade unionism in these days is conservative and finds its radicalism in several forms: first, the Marxian theory that the proletariat massesthe laboring classes-should control government, collec (a) will endeavor to secure and maintain fair and humane conditions of labor for men, women, and children, both in their own countries and in all countries to which their commercial and industrial relations extend, and for that purpose will establish and maintain the necessary international organizations; (b) undertake to secure just treatment of the native inhabitants of territories under their control; (c) will entrust the League with the general supervision over the execution of agreements with regard to the traffic in women and children, and the traffic in opium and other dangerous drugs; (d) will entrust the League with the general supervision of the trade in arms and ammunition with the countries in which the control of this traffic is necessary in the common interest; (e) will make provision to secure and maintain freedom of communications and of transit and equitable treatment for the commerce of all Members of the League. In this connection, the special necessities of the regions devastated during the war of 1914-1918 shall be borne in mind; (f) will endeavor to take steps in matters of international concern for the prevention and control of disease. See also, in the Peace Treaty with Germany, Part XIII, entitled "Labour." "The "People's Charter" called for such "impossible" demands as: manhood suffrage, the ballot, parliamentary districts of equal population, annual sessions, payment to members, who should be free from a property qualification. tively owning all wealth and means of production; 14 second, the syndicalist-guild socialistic demand that each basal industry shall be autonomous and controlled by its workers; and, third, more moderate demands that industrial workers be given a large voice in determining the conditions and wages in their respective industries. Unquestionably important modifications in the present system will meet with favor within the next few years. "The soviet system of Russia with its motto, "All power to the soviets"-the combinations of peasants, artisans, and soldiers-is based on Marxian teachings. For a summary and bibliography of "The Soviet Republic and its Government," see Ogg, Governments of Europe, Chapter XL, revised ed., 1920. CHAPTER VIII DISTINCTION BETWEEN STATE AND GOVERNMENT The Danger of Confusing State with Government. -Political government has already been shown to be distinct from the governmental organization of the other social institutions, and defined 2 as the organization of the state to which is entrusted the right to exercise the sovereign powers of the state.3 Properly such an organization should be able to exercise any power whatsoever that may be included under the term sovereignty. Yet this clearly would make the power of the government coterminous with the power of the state and might readily cause a confusion or identification of one with the other. This was common enough in former times and is not unknown in the arguments of many modern political discussions. An autocratic monarch, for example, unrestrained by any legal checks on the exercise of his powers, might well identify himself with the state and assume that in his own personal will were located the full powers of sovereignty. It is not strange, therefore, that modern writers who confuse state and government should denounce the so-called "absolute state," that 1 Chapter I. 'Page 48. In Great Britain the term government is used to designate those in charge of the governmental organization, the leaders of the personnel of government. |