numerous subdivisions, but a complete and exhaustive classification falls more properly under political theory, and is not demanded by this study. Enough has been said, however, to call attention to the scope and importance of political science and to indicate, briefly, its general divisions.

CHAPTER II

THE SOCIAL BACKGROUND OF THE STATE 1

Primitive human beings, as they slowly emerged from the harsh conditions of an animal struggle for existence, were banded together into natural groups, or hordes. These, through the friction of mind on mind and through coöperative action, enabled their members to attain greater mental ability and the power to satisfy their slowly increasing needs. One may safely assume that these natural human groupings were merely developments of animal aggregations and were based fundamentally on the need for foods, for safety against enemies, and for the propagation of the race. The permanent activities arising from these needs in due time evolved into the great primary institutions of human society-the economic, the political, and the familial.

Social Institutions.-Through the group life of primitive human beings and the consequent necessity for the expression of their inchoate thoughts, language developed and through its aid progress became possible, since a knowledge of beliefs, customs, and experiences could be transmitted from one generation to another-the beginnings of formal education. Through language also they could discuss one with the other their dread of the uncomprehended mys

In the Bibliography, Section I, will be found references to some writers in sociology.

teries and dangers by which they were surrounded, such as the dream, the storm, and the lightning flash, and thus they reached conclusions as to the existence of an environing world of anthropomorphic spirits, or ghosts, whose good will must be secured or against whose malevolence safeguards must be devised.

Through the daily experiences of countless generations they also learned the best methods for securing group safety, and reached conclusions as to what customs should meet with social approval, and what actions were inimical to group welfare. These "folkways" 2 in due time became the mores of social groups, differentiating slowly into ethical ideals of justice and right and into the commandments for average morals and the custom law of early government, the source and parent of the many aspects of law covered by the modern science of jurisprudence.

During the long course of the social development briefly outlined above, aided by the rise of social institutions, human beings became adjusted to coöperative activities one with another, and out of these associations arose innumerable social relationships each aiding to cement more closely human intercourse, thereby strengthening social ties and a recognition of common interests. Through such associations and institutions are conserved the contributions of bygone ages to civilization without a knowledge of which social life would lack continuity and stability. Such knowledge, likewise, makes possible new attainments on the basis of the known, so that each generation has for its task the duty of comprehending the achievements of the past and of adding its own increment to human knowledge.

'See Wm. G. Sumner, Folkways.

Obviously in a socialized education the members of society should become familiar with the development and importance of each of our great social institutions and should recognize the unity of social life. Every important modification in it affects all aspects of that life, its varied experiences are part of a common experience, and the same conditions and causes affect alike in varying degree all social institutions. In this century, therefore, when fundamental changes are taking place in social and national organizations, a knowledge of the development of civilization as a whole becomes important. This study is one of the branches of sociology, and is an attractive department of modern knowledge. In order, therefore, to see the relative place and importance of the state in social life, it may be well to indicate briefly the broad periods of civilization through which society has passed.

Meaning of Civilization.-Civilization has been defined in many different ways, but practically all definitions are based on one or more of three points of view: (1) that man is determined by his heredity and by his physical and social environment; (2) that in the struggle for survival, through variation and mutation he has attained a mental superiority over other animals; and (3) that this mentality, seen at its best in reasoning, generalizing, and in creative imagination, has been applied to the comprehension and utilization of the materials and forces of nature about him and to creative cultural achievements such as those in philosophy and art. A highly civilized race, therefore, should have a great measure of control over natural conditions, high mentality, artistic idealism, and philosophic insight. A race low in civilization would on the other hand be not

far removed in attainment and mentality from the higher forms of animal life.

3

Its Earlier Stages.-In tracing the development of civilization it is usual to divide it into stages, each characterized by some particular social attainment, either material or intellectual. Attention may, for instance, be directed to the substance used in the making of tools. The earliest human beings who became "tool-using animals" presumably used sticks and roots or branches of trees as primitive hammers and weapons. At a later period pieces of heavy stone were fastened to wood either by thongs or by insertion. Still later these stones were polished so as to give a better cutting edge and a more ornamental appearance. Then came the age of bronze or copper, in which were used soft metals that could be beaten into shape while in their natural state. In the last stages of early civilization, when the use of fire was understood, iron came into use through smelting. This was followed in modern times by the Bessemer process for the production of steel and civilization was then ready for the massive machinery of the twentieth century, whose introduction depended also on scientific knowledge as to the utilization of the powers of steam and electricity.

Other writers prefer to trace civilization by noting the chief sources of food supplies for human beings. At first natural foods which could be obtained by man without tools or weapons were consumed. Then came, in addition, food supplies from hunting and fishing. Still later, through the domestication of animals, came permanent supplies of flesh foods, and then agriculture made

'An excellent account of primitive man may be had from H. F. Osborn, Men of the Old Stone Age,