incident to commerce and machino factures supplement the fundamental occupations of the earlier periods. The first period, often referred to as the age of savagery, emphasized natural foods, the occupations of hunting and fishing, and the use of stone implements. The second period, the age of fixed, static, or patriarchal civilization, made use of flesh foods and grains, obtained through the occupations of pastoral and agricultural life, and made use of soft metals and, to some extent, of iron. The third period, the age of commerce and urban civilization, added to former occupations those involved in transportation and international trade, making also a large use of iron, and gaining food to some extent by exchange of manufactured goods for needed supplies. The fourth period, characterized by a complex and centralized social organization, emphasizes industrial occupations and abundant productivity through the utilization of the materials and forces of nature by means of machinery. Each later period includes what has gone before, but with diminishing emphasis. Hunting, for example, becomes a diversion more than an occupation, and foods from the soil are substituted for flesh as the "staff of life."

It must not be supposed that these periods are synchronous for all mankind. They represent grades of development and apply to particular racial and national groups of men, not to mankind as a whole. The larger half of humanity is still in one or the other of the first two periods, chiefly in the second; some nations after passing into the third period have sunk back into the second; the last period applies only to a numerically

Most of China, India, Russia, and Africa, for example. 2 Asia Minor and Persia are illustrations of this change.

small part of humanity made up of those modern nations most advanced in science and invention.

I. THE PRIMITIVE PERIOD

The Early Condition of Man.-In earlier primitive times human beings must have been little removed from the conditions of the beasts about them. They had no tools, no permanent marriage ties, few or no religious beliefs, nothing worthy of the name of state, and subsisted, like animals, on what nature spontaneously produced. In later primitive times, some knowledge of which is fairly well supplied from a study of relics and fossil implements, and from observation of low civilizations still existing, men had become far superior to the members of the animal world. They knew the use of fire, and had devised weapons, industrial and household implements, and the canoe. They erected rude houses, and made use of clothing, partly for protection against the inclemency of the weather but chiefly for purposes of ornamentation. Personal ornaments, rude drawings, idol or image-making, and the monotonous rhythm of their musical implements, dancing and singing, all testified to the beginnings of æsthetic development. The voice had been trained into articulate speech. The mysteries of religion were manifested in fetishistic and animistic beliefs under the guidance of the conjurer and the medicine man. The natural metronymic family of earlier times was still the dominating type, but was developing tendencies looking toward the patriarchal form. Personal property rights can hardly be said to have developed except that weapons, ornaments, and clothes were individual possessions. Ownership in land was unknown, except that each savage horde had hunt

ing grounds beyond which its members went at their own. peril. Such an age was plainly the age of beginnings. Men were no longer animals but neither had they much civilization.

Evidently in such a low stage of social life little should be expected along lines of political development. Yet the basis of practically all we have to-day may be traced back to the later primitive period. The nation was represented by the horde, a loosely organized mass of human beings not necessarily closely akin, but yet held together by propinquity and by ties of common descent, customs, and language. The horde was not a permanent organization by any means, yet in normal times it held together for purposes of food-getting, for offense and defense, and for social or convivial gatherings. Long established customs tracing their descent from time immemorial, and prohibitions in the form of tabus represented early law, which was enforced by public opinion under the guidance of the elderly men of the horde, who, as persons of wide experience and larger knowledge of traditions, were deemed wise. This body of elders is the ancestor of modern government and from it has evolved the three historic departments of government. Intercourse between hordes was regulated by a fairly definite mode of procedure, the germ of diplomacy and international law.

The Beginnings of the State.-In these developments there surely seem to be the elements necessary for the existence of the state-authority, law, procedure,

'There is much diversity in respect to the terminology applied to the several forms of early human groups. To avoid confusion, therefore, the reader should carefully observe the idea conveyed in this text by the words horde, tribe, and clan, and should remember that the same groups are named differently by different writers.

and a unity organized for purposes of common utility and protection. Yet there was lacking the element of permanency, permanency in interests, in organization, and in purposes. For as long as a community depends entirely on hunting and fishing for a precarious subsistence, nothing really permanent in civilization can develop. In such a stage of life hordes of men and women moved about from place to place seeking food supplies. When food was abundant, the pleasures of feasting and companionship increased the membership of the horde. But when food became scarce, the horde lost its unity since its members scattered far and wide so as to maintain life more easily. Under such conditions there could be no permanent home, no opportunity for the steady development of law, order, discipline, and morality and no time for mental development except along lines of cunning competition with hostile beasts and savage men. Physical instincts, derived from animal ancestors, modified slightly by custom and the rule of force, and perpetuated by hard experience, were the chief factors in life. Continuity of purpose and forethought were unknown. Men lived from hand to mouth in a desperate struggle for existence, and by no possibility could develop what might properly be called a state. Yet the conditions were present that at a later stage allowed the elements of the state already in existence to develop into a definite body politic, exercising sovereign authority over a permanently settled community.

II. THE PATRIARCHAL PERIOD

The Development of the Tribe.-Several factors contributed to the development of higher civilization among some of these primitive hordes. The demand for

food and safety compelled greater ingenuity in the manufacture of hunting weapons, as well as cunning and skill in the use of them against human enemies whose flesh in those days supplied a much-desired variety in daily food. Women developed patient endurance, medicinal knowledge, and inventive power, as they plied their tasks of rearing the young, gathering and preparing edible vegetation, weaving, house-building, and fashioning ornamentation. If the sharper mentality of a horde met its reward in the shape of more abundant food supplies, improvement in the physique furnished the conditions for the possibility of a still higher mental development. Some ingenious community at last hit on the happy expedient of saving alive the young of wild animals, domesticating them, and thus by the exercise of a little foresight and self-denial, it was enabled to keep food supplies on hand against times of scarcity. This discovery of human supremacy over animals susceptible of domestication, gave an immense impetus to civilization. Transient hordes became firmly compacted tribes held together by the common ownership and use of plentiful food supplies in the form of flocks and herds. The vague boundaries of hunting grounds became definite areas of excellent grazing lands fiercely defended against envious aliens. For the possession of flocks and herds meant war with hungry neighbors. Hence there came a demand for better weapons, wiser leaders, braver men, who as shepherd-warriors were prepared to defend their wealth against all comers. Such an aggressive mode of life developed masterful qualities in the men; women were relegated more and more to the inner life of the group, and with the increase of domestic responsibilities tended to become household drudges. The abundance of