likely to flourish where the "spoils" are. For such reasons the modern battles of democracy have regularly raged about principles of taxation. In England the struggle has been for the "control of the purse"; in the American Colonies, that there be "no taxation without representation"; and in general, that all taxation be for public, never for private, interests, and that the burden. of taxes be equitably assessed. The motive in such struggles is not necessarily mercenary; experience shows that when the citizen body as a whole controls the tax rate and expenditures, public policy loses its military aspects and attention is concentrated on the upbuilding of internal improvements and systems of general education. In place of war come art, science, and happiness.

A citizen should realize that his welfare and that of his kinsmen and friends are involved in the welfare of the state. The natural love for the land of one's birth is strengthened by an appreciation of its helpfulness in securing happiness and prosperity. Patriotism is, therefore, intensified in devotion and government grows in efficiency, since officials know that they can rely on popular support, and citizens understand that the government has their best interests at heart. It may be argued, therefore, that the final and, in some respects, the most important obligation placed on a citizenship is the obligation to take an intelligent interest in the government and policies of his country. Patriotism should not be thought of as a duty, or as associated merely with war; true patriotism should be felt as a privilege, to be exercised occasionally in time of war but regularly in times of peace.

'Pericles' panegyric on the State, in his Funeral Oration is well worth reading in this connection. See Thucydides' Peloponnesian War, vol. i, Book 2, paragraphs 34-48.

CHAPTER XX

POLITICAL PARTIES

Political Parties as Agencies of Democracy.-A body of citizens works politically through its electorate, and the voters who compose the electorate, in order to perform their share of the work of government efficiently, should have a general intelligent understanding of the forces at work in political life. If all men should attain maturity in intellectual development, public opinion, working through a democratically organized government, would be amply sufficient for all purposes. Modern civilization, however, is too immature for us to work on the assumption that all men are intelligent. A small per cent only are really expert in political affairs, and the average man has yet much to learn, even in a democracy. Under such conditions it is not strange that men often fail to see a question in its truer meaning, and form partial and distorted opinions in regard to public policy. Hence there regularly exist in political communities numerous factions and parties, each favoring a policy that in its opinion is essential to public welfare. The existence of these factions or parties provokes discussion, and out of discussion may arise wisdom and conviction. In our present stage of civilization, therefore, political parties have an important function; through them discussion takes place, rights are won or lost, and policies

good or bad adopted. They become an agency through which the citizen body works, in order to attain what at the time seems expedient and best. Rightly used they become indispensable to a democratic government, but perverted they corrupt democracy and weaken public morals. For such reasons an outline of their development and organization becomes necessary to an understanding of politics.

Development of Parties.-In despotisms differences of political opinion find no formal expression, and tend to degenerate into intrigues for place and power. In old-fashioned monarchies and aristocracies a ruling class has power, and maintains it permanently unless overthrown by war or revolution. Under such systems assassinations and armed rebellion are the chief means whereby an unpopular government may be overthrown. An advantage was gained when the principle of election was definitely established in governmental organizations; war chiefs and rulers were thus chosen almost from the beginnings of political life, although this political right was lost under autocratic governments but was regained in the era of republics. A great advance was made when elections became frequent and affected not simply the head of the state but all officers of importance. This development, so well known through Greek and Roman government, has proved to be a powerful agent in securing stability and peace. For when the system of election has become a familiar device in political life, if a body of citizens become incensed at the policy of those in power, instead of rushing to arms as formerly and risking all on their success or failure in war, they enter on a political campaign and seek to overcome their op

ponents through the ballot.1 After the election the defeated party yields power to the victors and awaits an opportunity to gain supremacy at the next election. Such a system has obvious advantages over the old method of rebellion or assassination. It can be at its best, however, only when all really important interests can thus express their opinions, otherwise revolutions will alternate with elections. It is essential also that a large part of the electorate be fairly intelligent, so as to decide wisely in regard to opposing policies, and also that they have a proper regard for law, so as to use honest methods in elections and to be willing to abide by the result.

"Bossism."-Evidently, therefore, an efficient party system can be found efficacious only when all interests are properly represented and when the electorate is largely made up of intelligent and law-abiding citizens. The evils so prevalent in the elections of democracies are not inherent in democracy, but are due to the neglect of fundamental principles; interests are not properly represented, large numbers of the electorate are often illiterate and ignorant of political issues, and party managers too often violate every law of political ethics in their eagerness for victory. Yet "bossism" in politics, is, after all, merely a passing phase of a period of transition. The so-called practical politician is often the veriest tyro in actual knowledge of political principles. His policy is crude and shortsighted and based on the Machiavellian principle that the end justifies the means. Permanent success is based only on a fostering of economic interests of all the people and on a strengthening of their intelli

'The vocabulary of political parties is still fond of militaristic terms, for example: "campaign," "victory," "defeat," "invade the enemy's territory," "marshal the forces," etc.

gence and morality. Corrupt politicians may seem to succeed for a time, but they ultimately earn for themselves only contempt and dishonor. All experience shows that permanent honor in the political annals of any country is paid only to those men who despise trickery and dishonesty and who labor intelligently for the larger interests of their fellow-citizens.

Obviously, therefore, the true policy of government should be to encourage by its laws intelligence and honesty in government. Political corruption and betrayal of trust should be sternly punished and electional systems should be so adjusted as to favor honest voters and to encourage free expression of intelligent opinion. No wise democracy can afford to allow the primary, the convention, the ballot, and the count to be so manipulated as to thwart the will of the electorate. The machinery of government should not be adjusted for incompetency and dishonesty but for the accomplishment of the best work in the most economical manner. An intelligently educated citizen body with guarantied civil and political rights and with proper facilities for the expression of its will, may always be depended on to assert its privileges and express its will. Democracy demands energy, intelligence, and aggressiveness for its maintenance, and these must be purposively fostered by the state as an indispensable condition of its own prosperity.

The Rise of Political Parties.-The modern party system originated in England through the cleavage brought about by the Revolution of 1688 and the separation of interests that arose between the supporters of the new dynasty and those who favored the old. The real interests of the Kingdom were, however, so poorly represented in Parliament that parties for over a cen