the defeated population to labor, or to pay tribute according to dictated terms, and to obey the commands placed upon them by the ruling class.

The State Supreme. In the light of these two explanations the state stands forth as fundamentally a war band charged with the duty (1) of preserving group safety and (2) of guaranteeing domestic peace by using threat and force so as to render submissive recalcitrant subjects. The state, therefore, differs from other social organizations in that it governs, not merely its own institution, the armed forces, but more than that it is a supergovernment over all other governments within the national group, whether economic, familial, or religious, and sees to it that the population as a whole is subject and obedient to the will and command of the rulers or ruling class.

On the basis of this explanation it now becomes possible to see the historic importance of the state, to recognize it as the dominant social institution and from the standpoint of group safety as the most important of all human organizations. It has been and is a mighty factor in civilization. Though in history it has frequently been the instrument of tyranny and despotism, and has often hindered rather than helped humanity, yet it admittedly stands for the preservation of the highest in human development.

Submission to its orders, as Hobbes plainly showed, is the price men pay for liberty. For at least twenty-five hundred years the study of this institution has occupied the minds of the wisest philosophers and most thoughtful statesmen, and ancient writings even yet supply the basis

'In his Leviathan.

for modern political studies. We are, at the present time, at the close of the greatest war in history, in an era of numerous important developments in political life; expansion, colonization, federation, democracy, and struggles for the realization of statehood on the part of suppressed nationalities are so powerfully affecting the political conditions of the world that the study of the science of the state has become especially important. The United States of America, which, as a leading state, should have an important part in the discussion and formulation of world policies has an especial interest in world politics at present and should popularize the teachings of politics as never before. Naturally so much attention has been given to the state in late centuries that teachings in respect to it and its government have been systematized into a science, the study of the state, or political science.

Political Science.-Political science may properly be considered a branch of the larger study known as social science, or sociology. Social science devotes itself to the study of associated man, either by seeking to ascertain the principles and laws underlying human activity or by concrete studies of various forms of social life. The phenomena of social life are closely related and interdependent, but, for convenience, they are regularly classified into groups, and each class or group of phenomena made the subject of special study. In this way are developed such social studies as economics, political science, ethics, comparative religion, education, and history. Political science may be defined as the science concerned with the study of the state and of the conditions essential to its existence and development. In other words, the fields of

For example, Aristotle's Politics in the West and Confucian teachings in China.

political science should include a study of the origin of the state, its nature, its numerous forms of organization, its aims, powers, methods of activity, and the conditions that aid or retard its development.

So important is this study that every member in a state, and surely every citizen in a democracy, should strive to become familiar in a general way with the beginnings and the development or history of so important an institution, having under its control, as it does, the lives and property of citizens and the safeguarding of national destiny. The great empires of Russia and Germany, so powerful in 1914, so humbled in 1920, show clearly how necessary it is that states in making their decisions be guided by a broad political intelligence and by an insight into world situations.

A really wise statesman should be more than a skilled politician or a provincial nationalist. As Aristotle says, he should be acquainted with what is best in theory as well as with what is best under given conditions. He should know the history, development, and purpose of the state, and the best theoretical and the best practicable forms of government. He should also be able, because of his large knowledge of governmental agencies in different parts of the world, to suggest remedies for defects in existing governmental systems.

Subdivisions of Political Science.-The subdivisions of political science are numerous and the boundaries of each ill defined. There are in consequence many possible classifications, each determined by the standpoint of the particular writer." The classification outlined in the fol"Politics, Book IV, Sec. 1.

As illustrations of classifications, see Willoughby, Nature of the State, pp. 4-5, and Pollock, Introduction to the History of the Science of Politics, pp. 94-95.

lowing paragraphs includes eight of the more familiar aspects of the science.

(1) If the state be viewed abstractly, we have the branch known as political philosophy or theory, devoting itself to reasonable explanations of the principles underlying political life and development. Such explanations obviously should take into account the kindred teachings of mental and social philosophies, which naturally consider political philosophizing in connection with their broader studies. (2) As in the case of other philosophies there may also be a history of political theories, so as to give one an historic background for modern theories. This branch is rightly receiving increasing attention at the present time. (3) Again states have dealings and relationships one with another and have developed a code of international law and the art of diplomacy, both of which branches are of extreme importance in these days of world problems and complex interests. The indications are that such studies will be vigorously emphasized throughout this century, since states will need increasingly intelligent guidance during the international turmoils of the readjustment period on which the world is entering.

(4) A fourth branch of political science devotes itself to political government, studying its development, the conditions that aid or retard national prosperity, and the numerous forms of governmental organization and administration throughout the world. A study of this sort may be made general and comparative, or may restrict itself to the particular type employed by one's own government. The broader study is preferable so as to avoid

Dunning's three-volume work on Political Theories is an excellent study of this sort.

provincialism and the development of beliefs in the perfection of one's own form of government. (5) Again, attention may be given to the functions or activities of government, the theory underlying these explained and the practices of typical governments worked out historically or comparatively. (6) A more highly specialized branch of political science is the study of jurisprudence or law in all of its branches (including international law). This has a close relation to ethics and the study of human customs (mores), since law is largely based on customs (the common law) and on supposed principles of right and justice (equity).

(7) There is also the study of the art of politics, that is, of the approved and honorable methods of conducting the affairs of government so as to secure national safety and general welfare. The word politics is frequently used also in a narrower sense, referring to the conduct of contests of political parties for office, or in the sense of dishonest methods aiming to secure political success through trickery or bribery. (8) Finally, there may be a study of policy, in which one studies the principles underlying governmental action with reference to some well defined aim or plan. A national policy may have in mind a broad principle of permanent importance, such as Great Britain's policy of the control of the seas, or the policy of isolation from European affairs, emphasized so strongly by the United States of America down to 1916; or, by contrast, policy may emphasize a narrower principle, applicable to a particular nation or condition, such as the American policy formulated by John Hay of the "open door" as applying to China. Each of these general topics is itself susceptible of 'Whether individualistic or socialistic, for example.