was within the range of possibility. Development along such lines was already manifest, as illustrated (1) by the growing identity of social and economic interests brought about by constant intercourse through modern inventions, (2) by the development of international law, comity, and arbitration, (3) by the development of common administration in such matters as postal service, (4) by the practical supremacy of four or five leading states over the world's territory and (5) by the growing humanitarianism of the age. All these seemingly pointed to a peaceable union of the human race under the supremacy of a developing confederation of leading states.

The Great War seemingly plunged the world back into an intense racial struggle for survival and intensified racial hatreds. It also brought in its train at the signing of the Armistice vigorous readjustments of governmental organization, not among the Central Powers only but among the Allies also. National boundaries were readjusted and new states formed on the basis of nationality.

A League of Nations has been organized, excluding the Central Powers for the present, and this in due time should accomplish much in removing causes of friction in the Eastern Hemisphere. On the other hand it is questionable whether the great nations can agree to divide the world's supremacy among them in an amicable manner. It may be that the tendencies which make for peace will develop a peaceable confederation, or the submission of the rest to the hegemony of one, but the probabilities hardly point in that direction. Western civilization is characterized by a fierce, warlike, competitive spirit that brooks no rivals in a contest for economic supremacy. The enormous cost of war and the terrible

loss of life involved in modern struggles are deterrent factors, but these sink away when the lust for gain and warring seizes by contagion entire nations.

A world state or federation would be strong only as its members were homogeneous in civilization and fairly well amalgamated in blood. When one reflects that by far the larger part of humanity live under backward civilizations and in tropical or semitropical lands, it becomes evident that amalgamation by blood would demand not centuries but thousands of years, and that a blending of such dissimilar civilizations is hardly possible. If, however, dominant states should hold such populations as mandataries, as England, for example, does India, and develop them in civilization as rapidly as possible, a firm and lasting unity might be secured that ultimately would become democratic. It may be that the future has some such solution in store for humanity. If so, then the dream of many Utopians may be realized, and humanity guided by a world policy may systematically utilize social agencies for the highest possible development of the human race. Indications along such lines will be much clearer by the end of the twentieth century, for civilization having passed round the world is centering its energies in the Western Hemisphere and in the Far East. The lands bordering on the Pacific will grow in importance during this century, and by the end of it the dense populations of China and India will probably have found their place in the politics of the modern world.

CHAPTER VI

INTERNAL PEACE, FAMILY, AND CHURCH

INTERNAL PEACE

Social Regulation of Crime.—As the primary function of the state is the protection of the lives and property of the community through war, it is not strange that a similar function in internal affairs should develop. Attention has already been called to this necessity in connection with the suppression of subjugated races under the jurisdiction of the state, but in other respects state authority grew much more slowly. Long before the state existed men had protected themselves and still felt abundantly able to do so in ordinary emergencies. In all civilizations, groups of men are found united in bonds of real or fictitious kinship for purposes of joint protection. How natural this has become is seen at a glance by observing the numerous fraternal orders of developed civilization. These groups in early civilization were united for purposes of blood revenge, fine payments, and mutual responsibility. The patriarchal family at a later stage answered the same purpose. The loosening of patriarchal family ties through commerce and industry brought about in city life the development of the guild, the guild for social and religious purposes,

1 page 4.

ties.

Pillustrations,

see Hutton Webster, Primitive Secret Socie

the trades guild, the merchant guild, and akin to these the orders of knighthood and the brotherhoods of the church. Such associations, found in all civilizations and in all times and places, devoted themselves to the preservation of the peace by restraints placed on individual members, by discipline inflicted on disturbers of the peace, and by presenting a united front against aggressions of unruly members of the community.

Outlawry. But besides associations for the preservation of the peace there were others organized for opposite purposes, associations composed of outlaws, robbers, criminals who had fled from home, men owning no master, worthless fellows for whom no one would be responsible. Against such the united strength of the entire community was necessary. The state therefore developed the function of unifying the force of the community against armed associations of lawless men within its own borders. Similarly, armed resistance to the laws of the community in the form of rebellions, insurrections, and riots, was suppressed through the power and strength of the state. In this way developed the right of the state to suppress such disturbances with a strong hand, if necessary suspending civil law for the time and exercising arbitrary war powers.

Minor Breaches of the Peace.-Ordinary breaches of the peace 5 long remained outside the jurisdiction of the state, and even now some offenses against the peace are popularly considered matters to be settled personally, such as offenses against honor, chastity, reputation, and

3

For special studies of Oriental guilds see articles in the Yale Review, vol. ix, pp. 200 and 275, F. W. Williams, "Chinese and Medieval Gilds"; and vol. vii, pp. 24 and 197, W. E. Hopkins, "Ancient and Modern Hindu Gilds."

4

See, for example, the Cave of Adullam, I Samuel xxii, 2.

See page 3.

the person.

Certain social associations or institutions are still accustomed to exercise slight powers of discipline over their membership, as, for instance, the family, the school, and the church. There are many survivals of private vengeance such as the fisticuff brawl of humble life, the well-nigh obsolete duel of socially higher classes, the use of lynch law administered by outraged individuals of communities, Ku-Klux organizations, and the feuds still so common in backward countries or semipatriarchal communities. All such offenses were once legally avenged by the persons offended, supported by the kinsmen of the fraternity or family. If one slew another, the friends of the murdered man slew the murderer or one of his kin. If injury less than life was inflicted, similar injuries were given in retaliation. This lex talionis, or principle of eye for eye, tooth for tooth, had one extremely inconvenient consequence; it was likely to develop into a blood feud. Blood feuds kept the whole community in turmoil, besides robbing the state of many of its best fighting men. Under such conditions the state assumed the office of umpire, examined the facts in the case, turned over the guilty person to his prosecutors for punishment, and forbade the friends of the convicted person to carry the matter further. These, debarred from the privilege of avenging their kinsman, sought the privilege of redeeming his life by payments. a compromise in most cases proved eminently satisfactory to all parties. Better pay a fine than lose a friend, and on the other hand a fine received is some compensation for the loss of a friend, and perhaps more satisfactory than blood revenge. The state was also satisfied, by this arrangement, because men that kill in fight make good soldiers in war, and war material of that sort was

Such