years was making such a demand upon the supply of rags that a substitute had to be looked for or the price of paper would have been greatly increased even if the supply of rags did not fail. Rags are brought to-day from all parts of the world, thousands of tons coming from Japan alone, and use is found for them all, notwithstanding the immense use of their substitute, wood.

An unprofessional test of paper is difficult, but a simple test of repeated folding and attempt to tear in the fold will prove its strength, and by inference the presence or absence of good fibre. We make to-day as good, if not better, paper than the English, and the hand-made papers, unlike many hand-made articles, are inferior to the machine-made.

To sum up, it may be said that there is as good, if not better, paper made to-day than ever before, and also as poor, if not poorer. The introduction of wood into the manufacture has revo

thorough tests, no one can positively assert whether the chemical wood, or esparto, papers are safe for records or valuable books, and it is certainly safer at present to adhere to the use of the best rag papers. In purchasing such the manufacturer must be relied upon, and a fair price paid for the best.

It should be distinctly borne in mind that the wood papers are of two kinds, the ground wood and the chemically prepared; and of the chemially prepared there are two classes, those pre-lutionized the business, but as time is needed for pared by what is known as the soda process and the other by the sulphite. In the nature of things, the grinding of the wood destroys the fibre, consequently the strength is gone and the paper must depend upon the sizing for its chief strength. The soda process is the older, and from the time it has been in use it is thought it will produce lasting paper, but no strong claim is made for the sulphites, as they are called. The ground wood paper is brittle and discolors quickly, while the chemical wood paper has greater strength and holds its color. In the chemically prepared wood, the wood is disintegrated without destroying the fibre. I say without destroying the fibre, that is, immediately; but whether the chemicals will injure the fibre so that in time the paper will prove not to be as lasting as hoped for, is a question which time only can settle.

Much paper is made of a mixture of the chemical wood and rags, and it is difficult to determine the presence of the wood. The daily papers and cheapest books in the market are made wholly of the ground wood.

Many of these papers are marked linen, or all linen; but when every manufacturer and dealer knows that all linen does not mean all linen, the marking of paper all linen is meaningless, and a purchaser must make his inquiries independent of the mark if he desires the best paper.

The coloring of paper is done in two ways, either by coloring the pulp-in which case the color is in the paper or by coloring the sizing when it is only on the surface, to be removed by an erasure. This is an important fact to be borne in mind.

Papers are being coated for various purposes, notably for magazines when half-tone prints are to be used; and it is a matter of speculation how lasting this coating will be. It is greatly disliked by printers and is easily rubbed off.

Taking the second subject, ink, it is surprising that we know so little about it, and that more attention has not been given to it by chemists. Until about 1765 little had been done towards scientific study of the question, but at that time Dr. William Lewis, F.R.S., experimented with inks and came to certain conclusions which were found by later chemists to be erroneous. These later conclusions were in turn discredited, and in 1855 Dr. James Stark, who had experimented for 13 years, making 229 inks and many thousand experiments, concluded that nutgall and iron inks were the only permanent ones, and today it is conceded that no ink has as yet been discovered that can compare for permanency with them. Experimenters are still at work and are putting the results of their experiments upon the market for the community to find the worthlessness of by sad experience.

Let us first consider the kinds of ink, or rather the classes, for of the many kinds they all belong to classes, which are few. First, as being the oldest, is the India or Chinese ink, which may be termed a paint, as it was applied with a brush. Whether the Chinese invented this ink, as claimed, or whether it was introduced into China, is a disputed point; but their process is a secret, and imitations of the ink do not, as a rule, have the blackness of theirs, the tendency being towards brown. The writings of the ancients were probably made with ink similar to India ink, lamp black and gum being the ingredients; in fact, some ancient writers have mentioned the proportions of each used in their

manufacture. As India ink is no longer used for ordinary writing, it need not be further considered.

Next in order to the India ink probably came the iron and tannin inks, commonly called nutgall and iron, as the tannin is usually procured from nutgalls. These inks may be said in general terms to be made of sulphate of iron and galls, and the oxidization of the iron in the paper is what gives the black color and permanency. These, as before stated, are permanent, if properly made, and for years they were so made; but the extended use of ink, its varied uses consequent upon the changed conditions of society, the hurry of these latter years, the preferences of writers, and competition, have all tended towards degeneracy in the manufacture of perma- | nent ink.

The early inks were pale in color, and heavy, and attempts to make them of a more decided color and thinner led to experimenting. For coloring, indigo was first used, and later, other substances, but since the introduction of aniline dyes they are the most popular, as being thinner and cheaper. If the ink contains the proper proportion of nutgall and iron, the added color is not injurious, as, if that fades, the iron has taken its hold, and will grow black with age. The danger, as will be shown later, is in the introduction of color to the exclusion of the other ingredients.

To overcome the heaviness of the permanent inks, and meet the demand for free-flowing ink for commercial purposes, the manufacture of fluids was commenced, which, although nutgall | and iron, might have their permanency injured by the addition of an excess of iron. The excess of iron causes the oxidization to take place too quickly, and the ink turns black before it permeates the paper. The recording officer who, by simple tests, would find many inks fugitive, is likely to be deceived in these fluids because they show the presence of the iron, but the fact of the excess of the iron is not known.

A great advantage in the use of nutgall and iron inks is that, if faded, they can be restored by the application of chemicals, which upon contact with the iron will bring out the original color to a certain extent.

The next class is logwood. The use of logwood was probably commenced because it has a color of its own which has a tendency to darken the ink, and as it contains tannin and can be used as a poor substitute for nutgalls, it cheapens the ink. It is sometimes added to a poor

Next comes the aniline class, dangerous in the extreme, and unfortunately becoming a large one. In speaking of aniline inks I cannot do better than to quote from the report of Prof. Markoe upon this subject: "Since the introduction of aniline dyes they have been largely employed for the manufacture of ink, either wholly to replace the galls and iron, or as addition to them, to allow the use of only a little galls and iron. They are also mixed with other colors. Under the name of nigrosine (an aniline black) there are found a variety of very strong dyes, which are perfectly soluble in water, and which in the proportion of from 1 to 3 per cent., perhaps without further addition, represent fairly closely the commercial inks of this variety. Such inks are cheap, give an immediate black, have very little body, and are popular for use as stylographic inks.

"Although some of the nigrosines are very resistent to chemical reagents, yet many of them are not, and do fade under the influence of light, while none of them have been tried sufficiently to prove their permanence. Another objection is their free solubility in water, which makes it comparatively easy to wash such inks from the paper, and allows them to run if accidentally wet. Furthermore, they do not enter the paper as gall and iron inks do."

The carbon class is the last, and, strangely, it was the first, although in another form. As stated, the very earliest writings were made with carbon, and the later India ink was carbon, and | liquid carbon inks are now being made. These have nigrosine for a base and carbon in suspension, but not in solution, for carbon has not yet been rendered soluble. The fact that it has not prevents the carbon from permeating the paper, and it is deposited on the surface from which it can be washed off with water. This prevents the use of the carbon inks where permanency is required.

Of all the classes mentioned there are several variations. Substances are necessarily added to prevent mould, and combinations are made to produce effects which shall make an ink popular for general use. Persons having no knowledge of chemistry put ingredients together, and put them upon the market under names which mean nothing. They can be sold at a low price and have a short run, having more than likely been put upon pages which in a comparatively short time will show no trace of them.

add a little color that will not injure the ink. first writing of the old English inks, which would This must be a little, however.

turn black in time, led to the introduction of coloring matter, and probably without much injury to the ink until the coal tar colors came into use; but now the bright colors are looked upon with suspicion.

The

You have seen specimens of writing made with the ink recommended as permanent which are fading. Some one was at fault, then, in that particular quantity, more likely the writer, who had watered the ink, or mixed it with another, Perhaps in an attempt to satisfy yourself you or allowed it to freeze, or used too much sand; have experimented, and discovered that by mixbut it was an iron ink, and application of chemi-ing two inks you have found satisfaction. cals would restore it, because the iron does not chances are that the two inks will destroy each decay or evaporate. other by precipitation; but some one not realizing the truth of the adage, that “a little knowledge is a dangerous thing," might tell you that if the inks are all of the same class — that is, of the gall and iron class, the logwood and chromium class, or the nigrosine class they can be mixed with safety. Two logwood and chromium inks, the chromium existing as an acid in one and as a base in the other, may be so mixed as to precipitate all the coloring matter and leave only a colorless liquid above the sediment formed: or the mixing of gall and iron inks may give such another excess of either iron or tannin as to make the mixture worthless.

Having found the ink you are satisfied is safe, you ask the price, and object to that. There lies a great trouble that accounts for the multitude of poor inks upon the market. A large importer gave up the importation of an ink which had stood 110 years because the American public demanded cheaper fluid, and the American manufacturers of reliable inks have had to put upon the market fugitive inks to compete with cheap mixtures called ink.

Now let us consider the ink you had been using with satisfaction. It flowed freely, blotted easily, if it thickened with standing could be thinned with water, did not corrode the pen, and was a good color which did not change. All excellent qualities for a commercial ink if you are an entry clerk writing at your greatest speed, or writing papers which will be valueless in a few years, but you can find the market full of inks which will suit you just as well. It flows with the greatest freedom because it is made with an excess of iron to develop all the color possible in its fluidity, and its permanency is injured thereby. Its blotting quality has already been condemned. If it thickened water would thin it. If water was its base, and only enough was added to supply what had evaporated, it would not be injured, but if too much water was added it would be ruined, and if water were not its base the addition of any would ruin it, because the addition of water hastens oxidization in the inkstand and impoverishes the ink. If the water was largely charged with iron or lime it would add injurious elements to the ink. It did not corrode the pen. This may or may not be indicative of permanency in an ink. If it corrodes it may be well, for, as stated before, the pen may be giving up just the requisite quantity of iron; or, on the other hand, if the ink is as fully charged with iron as it should be, the additional quantity given up by the pen will make the ink flow too freely and be less permanent. It was of a bright color and did not change after a time. The idea of any color for ink except as nearly black as possible is modern. The paleness at

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You say then, "Where can we find a free flowing ink, jet black, non-thickening and permanent?" It is disappointing to have to say that no such ink has been discovered though the best chemists have long labored with the problem.

Great progress has been made with aniline dyes, some having been discovered which are more lasting upon fabrics than the vegetable dyes, which heretofore could not be equalled, and it is not impossible that an aniline ink may yet be made which shall be jet black and permanent. The troublesome question which has puzzled the chemists for years would then be settled. I trust the tone of this paper will not be thought pessimistic. Improvement is in the spirit of the age, and in paper and ink making as in everything else. But the improvements are to meet requirements, and the requirements to-day in business are to meet the demand for speed. Electricity is "setting our pace," and appliances by which speed can be attained with the pen or the press, or by substitutes for them, are being crowded into the market with its sharp competition. Stamping, duplicating, photographing, rapid writing, all at the least possible cost, are conducing to put into the market materials suitable for their legitimate use, but wholly unfit for others, and the careful, conscientious worker should value his work, and then have a care that he employs the proper tools with which to accomplish it. My hope is to impress upon such workers the need of such care.

ANOTHER CHARGING SYSTEM.

BY NINA E. BROWNE, Librarian Library Bureau, Boston.

Of the varieties of charging systems there | attendant can at any time during the day write seems to be no end. The form here described may be of interest to some of the JOURNAL readers.

It requires a book card, a book pocket, and a reader's pocket. The use of the book card and book pocket is the same as at Newark and Salem. The reader's pocket, then, becomes the point of variation. Instead of the usual card, each reader has a pocket of special design which bears the reader's registration number, his name and address.

The modus operandi is very simple. The reader presents his pocket with a call slip. This slip need not bear his number or name, because the pocket will show these items, and the chances of separation are slight. Persons who use libraries where each call slip must be signed with name and address will appreciate this saving. The attendant, after finding a book, takes its book card from the pocket at the back and places the card in the reader's pocket and stamps the date upon the book, preferably upon the book pocket. The book is then given to the reader.

At the end of the day these book cards, still in the borrowers' pockets, are filed in book number order in a tray bearing the date. This arrangement of the book cards shows what persons have the books, as well as the time when they were taken and when due. If a record of the circulation of each book is desired, the

on the book cards the readers' numbers and stamp the date. The advantage is that the reader is not detained while a record, which is of no apparent value to him, is made.

When the reader returns the book, he must get his pocket in order to begin the process over again. The book, therefore, must be discharged immediately upon presentation. The date on the book pocket shows in which tray the card is. The special form of the reader's pocket makes it a simple matter to find the card, since the cards cannot stick together. The card, when found, is replaced in the book pocket and the reader's pocket is returned to him.

The reader comes to the library generally in tolerably good humor, and is more willing to see his book discharged, thus releasing him from all obligation, than to wait while an attendant stamps the date three times and writes a long number, as in many systems.

The work involved in sending out fine notices is also lessened. Since the reader's pocket bears the name and address, the attendant has only to copy. In the ordinary systems the name and address have to be looked up in the borrowers' register, which in course of time becomes very unsightly.

The Medford Public Library is already using this system and is finding it satisfactory. The Forbes Library at Northampton is prepared to use it when the books are ready for circulation.

CARDS FOR THE "TWO-BOOK" SYSTEM. BY GARDNER MAYNARD JONES, Librarian Salem (Mass.) Public Library. My query in the February L. J. has led to a request that the answers be printed with my conclusions. I have learned of 18 libraries which are using the "two-book" system. Four use two cards and 14 use one card. Of the latter, six use a card with two divisions, "fiction" and "other works," and eight make all charges in the same column. Four write the number of the book in the return column. The two Philadelphia libraries simply mark "C" against the non-fiction date. This method apparently allows of easy alteration by the borrower. The Otis Library has been using one card, but intends changing to two cards.

Hill, who have been looking into the subject on their own account.

In addition to replies from libraries actually using the "two-book" system, I have received communications from Messrs. Carr, Cole, and

I started with an impression that one card with two divisions would be preferable, but have now decided that "one card, one book" should be our rule. The simplest plan is to issue an extra card, not good for fiction, bearing the same number as the regular card with the addition of some simple mark, such as X or S. The special card should also be of a different color.

The reader should keep track of his cards, and there should be no more difficulty through their getting mixed than there is now with several cards in one family.

With the "two-book" system, as with the single book, the only safe method is to keep two