similar situations. Here we have a type of reasoning in A A A, first figure. The mature teacher's experience furnishes the major premise, Stubborn attitudes on the part of pupils can be overcome by suggestion. The young teacher's difficulty furnishes the minor premise, Johnny's refusal to sing is a stubborn attitude. The conclusion follows forthwith, Johnny's refusal to sing can be overcome by suggestion. The difficulty is solved in this conclusion, which is no sooner reached than action on the part of the young teacher follows. Thus it is seen that deliberation, i. e., reasoning, takes place in the presence of baffling situations demanding response, and that the conclusions of trains of reasoning are the triggers that release the springs of action.

131. PRACTICAL AND LOGICAL REASONING, How RELATED.-How are practical and logical reasoning related? The one seems to be a far cry from the other. The difference is not by any means so great as at first sight appears. Indeed, logical reasoning is just practical reasoning grown wary of the pitfalls that encompass it. Both in the inductive organization of experience and its deductive application we have found that there are many chances of error. Logic tries as far as possible to plant red lights before these pitfalls. It aims at unusual caution and circumspection in thinking so as to avoid the two great dangers of common reasoning, hasty generalization in organizing experience, and hasty application in using it. It cautions the common man to establish his generalizations more after the careful method of the scientist than after the happy-golucky manner which he prefers. It advises him to apply

his generalizations, laws, and principles with practical certainty that the cases to which they are brought are instances needing that particular organization of experience. But, as has been implied already, such caution costs in time and labor. It therefore should be reserved only for the most important situations. And let it be admitted that the majority of the situations of life can be properly provided for by instinct and habit, and that when deliberation is needed it often suffices to reach a conclusion based upon probability rather than logical necessity. Life admits of much that is doubtful and unsettled, and should be met on numerous occasions in the spirit of faith and trust rather than that of absolute knowledge. Even our most cherished "truths," as was shown a few pages back, must change somewhat with the mutations wrought by time. On this point Minto speaks an illuminating word:

It "may be specified as an error incident to the practice of the Syllogism, that it inclines us to look for necessarily conclusive premises and to deny all weight to anything short of this. Now in ordinary life it is comparatively seldom that such premises can be found. We are obliged to proceed on maxims that are not of universal scope, and which lend only a more or less strong color of probability to cases that can be brought under them. . . . They are not true for all cases, but some of them are true for most or for a good many, and they may be applied with a certain probability though they are not rigidly conclusive. The plain man's danger is that he apply them unthinkingly as universals; the formal logician's danger is that, seeing them to be inapplicable as universals, he dismisses them as being void of all argumentative force." 1

'Minto, Logic, Inductive and Deductive, p. 213.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. To what error does logical analysis and the order of exposition in a text-book lead? To what is this error similar?

2. What is to be understood by mechanism? By organism? 3. Why does thinking resemble the latter rather than the former? 4. How may thinking be defined from the biological stand-point? 5. How may logical thinking be defined?

6. How is the A judgment used, and for what purpose? 7. What is the purpose in using the E judgment?

8. How are I and O related respectively to A and E?

9. What are the two meanings of I and O?

10. With what other judgments are A, E, I, and O, respectively, combinable as premises?

11. What kind of judgment does thinking aim at, and why? 12. What is meant by mediation?

13. From the point of view of the organization of experience, how would you define the syllogism?

14. How are the relations of genus and species brought about in each of the several figures?

15. Be prepared to give and explain the diagrams, showing the relation of terms as genus and species in the several figures.

16. How does the syllogism aid in organizing knowledge? 17. How is apperception involved in the use of the syllogism? 18. Explain why induction and deduction take place together rather than successively.

19. Is experience ever finished in the sense of being complete and giving final truth? Give reasons for your answer.

20. Name the main kinds of action.

21. Describe and cite instances of reflex action; instinctive action; habitual action.

22. Under what circumstances does each take place?

23. To what kind of environment do they respond?

24. Contrast deliberative action with them in respect to the situation occasioning it and the type of response.

25. Compare logical and practical reasoning.

EXERCISES ON CHAPTER XIX

1. Name two subjects in the elementary-school curriculum in which the pupil might be liable to the error of hypostasizing analytical abstractions, and show how it could be corrected.

2. Invent another analogy besides that given at the bottom of page 271 that will illustrate the true nature of logical thinking. 3. In the case of two A judgments of your own making show how the relation of species to genus is established.

4. Make two E judgments and show how they differentiate species under a genus. Name each species so differentiated and the inclusive genus.

5. Make an I and an O judgment and prove that they are really subordinate forms of A and E.

6. Show that I and O, with the meaning "some only," are used to create temporary classes, and restate them in the forms of A and E.

7. Construct one syllogism illustrating each function of each figure and show how it conforms to the diagrams representing the several functions.

8. Taking the syllogisms constructed in answer to Exercise 7, show the evidences of an apperceptive activity of the mind (association by similarity) in organizing experience.

9. Make an illustration of your own to show how induction and deduction work together in developing experience.

10. Cite two or three instances from your own knowledgegetting experience to show that knowledge is a growing process involving change in the conception of what is true.

11. Mention two cases where you have reasoned out a conlusion that was soon carried out into action.

12. Be prepared with proof that syllogistic reasoning occurs in practical life mainly in view of a baffling situation.

13. Be prepared to show by a concrete case how advice-getting is in general the seeking of organized experience to interpret a baffling special case.

14. Mention two or three cases in your recent experience where deliberative thinking was demanded to secure satisfactory adjustment to a situation but where probability rather than certainty was relied upon.

CHAPTER XX.-LOGIC AND EDUCATION

THE discussion of the various topics in the preceding pages has suggested certain applications of logic to teaching. It is necessary to consider this subject more systematically in this final chapter.

132. ANAYLSIS AND SYNTHESIS.-Thinking involves analysis of a fact, the determination of its relation to other facts and synthesis with such facts by classification. The purpose of the complex process is to get better control over the situation to which one must respond. The teacher is continually facing facts of the greatest complexity. His response to them depends in the main upon his power of analyzing them into their simpler factors, and then making valid syntheses into classes. This ability to "pick out and put together is a growth just as is every other mental function. The instinct to analyze and synthesize manifests itself very early; perhaps, indeed, from the first moment of life. But the instinct will grow in the right direction only provided ample situations are presented calling it into action. The subjects of the curriculum stimulate the child to analysis and synthesis. Geography requires that the home surroundings of the student be broken up into the unfamiliar elements of river-valley, mountainformation, water-shed, etc. Then in turn these factors produced by analysis must be synthesized into classes