a less numerous sub-group of that class, we are obviously cutting down the number of individuals to which it is applicable; but, just because they are fewer, they have more characteristics in common. The easiest way to show this is by taking a term and applying to it a number of qualifying adjectives, which, though adding attributes, cut down the things to which the term is applicable. Take, for example, the term man. Unqualified, it applies to all the inhabitants of our globe, but they share only in the attributes of upright stature, rationality, etc. Now prefix the adjective white; we have added to the connotation, but have immensely limited the denotation. Next prefix the adjective European to the term white man, and the range of application is still further narrowed, while the connotation is increased. French before European white man carries the process a step further, and Parisian before French European white man makes a final step toward limiting the denotation and increasing the connotation. The following table assists the eye to realize this relation: A useful exercise to help the student in understanding the relation of the connotation and denotation of terms is to select a series of terms which name higher and lower classes for arrangement in orderly sequence so as to show either increasing or decreasing connotation or denotation; then the student is to show how such an arrangement affects either the denotation or connotation. It must be noted that the terms selected must stand in the relation of higher and lower classes. A series of terms varying in denotation and connotation may show the variation either by a complete change of word or by prefixing modifiers to a constant term. Examples of the former are: man, European, German, Prussian, Berliner; of the latter: man, white man, American white man, cultured American white man. REFERENCES Creighton, An Introductory Logic, Ch. IV, § 16. Welton, Manual of Logic, Vol. I, Bk. I, Ch. II, § 28. Jevons-Hill, Elements of Logic, Ch. I, § III. Hibben, Logic, Deductive and Inductive, Pt. I, Ch. IV, p. 42 f. Sigwart, Logic, Vol. I, Pt. II, Ch. I, § 42. Venn, Empirical Logic, Ch. VII, § III (pp. 173-187). Mill, System of Logic, Bk. I, Ch. II, § 5. REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What two things are necessary in every class? 2. What two corresponding functions has the general term? 3. State the definition of denotation. 4. What are synonyms for this term? 5. Why is it preferable to its synonyms? 6. Define connotation. 7. Name synonyms of connotation. 8. How would you express the denotation when the class is small? when large? 9. Why does science aim at precise connotation? 10. What do you understand by "marginal cases"? Name an instance from some experience of your own. 11. What is the relation between denotation and connotation? 12. What must be the relation between terms used in an exercise to show changing denotation or connotation? 13. In what ways may the form of terms be made to show changing connotation? EXERCISES ON CHAPTER IV 1. In one column indicate the denotation (by species when the class is large) and in the other the connotation (consult the dictionary, encyclopædia, or science text-book if necessary) of the following terms: continent, mountain system, moon, occan, swan. 2. Fix according to the above directions the denotation and connotation of three general terms of your own choosing. 3. Arrange the following terms in order of increasing denotation, being prepared to show how the connotation is affected in so arranging them: president, Benjamin Harrison, Republican president, native-born citizen of the United States, Republican president from Indiana, white man, man, American, American statesman. 4. Arrange the above terms in order of decreasing denotation, increasing connotation, and decreasing connotation, being prepared to show how each arrangement influences connotation or denotation. 5. Make your own single series of five terms and arrange in four lists, headed: Increasing Denotation, Decreasing Connotation, Decreasing Denotation, Increasing Connotation. How are the lists related? PART II.-CLASSES CHAPTER V.-CLASSIFICATION AND DIVISION 23. CLASSIFICATION AS A PROCESS. Thus far our study of logic has shown us that general terms are the symbols of classes. We must now turn our attention to the process of classification. As a process, classification is psychological; for it is a special manner of the mind's operation. But the function of the process is distinctly logical; for it aims to get our experiences grouped so that we can better determine their meaning: Our minds always tend to unify their experiences. Indeed, it is doubtful if experience would have any meaning at all were it not for this unity which the classifying process brings about. Experience itself, if we mean by it more than being momentarily conscious while something happens, is a unity-the result of a species of classification; for each element of it must be brought into a group-relation with each other element, and running through the elements must be detected the common characteristic that it is my experience. As the result of the process of classification, we get classes or kinds, i. e., groups of units or elements in all of which we detect a bond of likeness no matter what their diversities in other points. Logic must assume that we can classify because objective likenesses exist 40 |