waiting to kneel and make an act of contrition while he gave a general absolution.54

As it turned out, there was no battle of Guam. The Spanish, who had not been in contact with their government for many weeks, were unaware that their country was at war with the United States. They thought that the seven shots fired at them from the Charleston on the morning of 20 July were a salute; moreover, some Spanish officers rowed out and apologized to the American captain for not having the appropriate guns to return a salute. Upon learning about the war and receiving an ultimatum to surrender or be attacked, the Spanish governor capitulated on the twenty-first, and a landing force raised the Stars and Stripes on the island.

Arriving at Cavite near Manila with the First California, Chaplain McKinnon set up a temporary chapel and arranged a schedule of Masses, services, confessions and conferences. He usually began his day by celebrating Mass and reading and meditating on the Divine Office; he then visited the troops in the barracks, infirmary, hospital, and on the drill grounds. He was especially diligent in regard to the sick and visited the wards several times each day. Most of the patients suffered from intestinal disorders; some had acquired a tropical fever and were in a more critical

As the American buildup continued the First California was ordered forward to Camp Dewey, located on the coast three miles south of Manila. There, after the Spanish launched hostilities on 31 July with a heavy artillery barrage and an unsuccessful infantry attack upon his regiment, McKinnon conducted the funerals of the unit's first eight combat dead. It was probably the emotional ordeal of accompanying inexperienced troops into battle and of conducting those funerals that later motivated him to attempt to obtain a peaceful surrender of Manila by appealing personally to the Spanish authorities.56 While Admiral George Dewey and Major General Wesley Merritt were preparing to launch an all-out attack on the city in late July, Brigadier General Thomas M. Anderson and some officers of the First California were leisurely discussing the military situation when Anderson suddenly asked, "Why in the name of common sense don't some of you Catholics enter Manila and tell that archbishop of yours to call this whole thing off?" Chaplain McKinnon, who was present, asked the general if his proposal was to be taken seriously, and Anderson replied that he was merely joking. The chaplain, however, considered the idea for

several days and eventually requested the general's permission to undertake the mission; the general hesitated but finally consented.

Initially, Chaplain McKinnon sought to enter Manila under the protection of the Belgian consul, but the consul disappointed him twice. The chaplain therefore foolishly took matters into his own hands. In the company of Chaplain Francis B. Doherty, he first attempted to walk 800 yards down to the beach, through the Spanish lines into Manila, and there visit Archbishop Bernardino Nozaleda. Spanish rifle fire, however, quickly turned them back; McKinnon was grazed by a bullet but unharmed.

Though that experience should have discouraged him enough to give up his scheme, he resolved to try again. Early on 9 August, just a few hours before the bombardment of Manila was scheduled to begin, he again set out on his mission. In broad daylight he walked toward the enemy position, and as he approached it, the Spanish fired at him. A bullet went through his cap; then, suddenly, the firing ceased. He kept walking until he reached the enemy line; there he identified himself to a Spanish officer and explained his mission. Spanish officials granted his request to visit Archbishop Nozaleda and Spanish Captain-General Fermin Jaudenes and escorted him to the archbishopal palace.

Though he was received cordially by the archbishop and politely by the captain-general, his mission failed, and the Spanish escorted him back through their lines and permitted him to return to his headquarters. There he reported the results of his escapade to his commander, Colonel James F. Smith. He said that even though Nozaleda believed Spanish defeat to be inevitable and counseled capitulation, for honor's sake, Jaudenes was determined to exhaust every means of resistance before surrendering. As news of his exploit spread throughout the First California, officers and men congratulated him. Newspaper correspondents interviewed him for the full story and wrote that his feat was "without parallel in the history of modern warfare-an act of unselfish bravery, of devotion to the sacred cause of peace, which should make his name live forever."

Shortly thereafter, the American forces left for the front to attack. Fortunately, being surrounded by Aguinaldo's insurgents and the United States VIII Corps, and realizing the hopelessness of their situation, the Spanish surrendered Manila to the Americans almost immediately. It was actually a sham battle. Before the surrender, however, Chaplain McKinnon was shot in the hip by a Mauser bullet, but his wound was slight and needed only a dressing.58 Most important, the Army's battle casualties for the 14 days of hostilities were relatively light. Unfortunately, those 14 days

were just a prelude to a longer conflict that proved much more difficult and costly.5

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THE PHILIPPINE INSURRECTION

The pacification policy of the United States government was designed to win the support of the Philippine populace from Aguinaldo's insurrectos. Being the major instrument of that policy, the Army implemented it with military and civic action. It used the Krag-Jorgensen rifles to gain and maintain the upper hand against the insurgents. More significant, as soon as the Spanish-American hostilities ended, it worked to create a better life for the Filipinos. It instituted legal and fiscal reform and organized public health programs and municipal governments. Most important, it established a public school system to which the Filipinos were especially responsive. The civic action program of the Army eventually convinced the majority of the Filipinos that their futures were more secure in the hands of the United States government than in those of Aguinaldo and the rebel leaders.60

In addition to providing religious ministrations to their regiments, the chaplains became involved in the civic action program, especially in education. Following the American victory on 13 August, Major General Merritt appointed William D. McKinnon as superintendent of Manila public schools, and drawing from his experience as a seminary instructor and an orphanage superintendent, McKinnon immediately set out to reopen them. Most schools, closed during the 105-day siege of the city, were in miserable condition. Numerous buildings had been destroyed, and many teachers had been dismissed. He therefore, leased, rented, and repaired school buildings. Finding it more difficult to hire enough teachers, he used soldiers as instructors. On 2 September he reopened the schools, and within a few days seven were in operation with an English instructor in each. When he resigned nine months later to return to the United States, the school system consisted of 32 schools and 4,800 students."

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Following the policy of the military government, most of the courses were the same as those taught under the Spanish regime; however, in keeping with the American tradition of separation of church and state, religious instruction was deleted from the curriculum. Coincidentally, the elimination of religious education was also one of the goals of the insurrectos. To focus his own efforts on primary and intermediate educa

tion, McKinnon did find it necessary to enlist the aid of the Catholic teaching orders to manage secondary and collegiate education; but directly or indirectly, he supervised every public school in the city. Parents in Manila Filipino, Spanish, and mestizo-appreciated what he and the Americans were doing for their children and increased their support of the school system. But despite his success in secularizing the system, voices in the United States were suspicious and protested: "How can this 'Protestant Nation' stand the appointment of a priest to a public office?" 62

When McKinnon returned to the archipelago in December 1899, Major General Elwell S. Otis persuaded Archbishop Nozaleda to appoint him pastor of a Catholic church at Ermita. Otis believed that Catholic officers and men, along with their families, needed a Catholic chaplain in one of the Manila churches so that they could have the "benefit of Divine Service in a language they could understand." But McKinnon gave his parishioners more than the customary religious services and ministrations; he also organized them to raise funds for the renovation of the church building and the administration of charitable programs. General Otis was so favorably impressed with his manner and abilities that he asked him to assist in the establishment of an educational system in the recently organized military department of Visayas. McKinnon obliged, and during April 1900 he visited towns throughout the Island of Panay, interviewed civic and church officials, hired teachers, repaired reopened schools, and laid plans for future development.

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Other chaplains were also instrumental in establishing an American educational system. Theophilus G. Steward, the Superintendent of Schools for Zambales Province, found that his knowledge of Spanish was particularly helpful as he traveled from town to town organizing schools and talking to students. Natives and soldiers taught in his schools and "accomplished excellent results." Such progress was remarkable, because in Zambales, as well as in other provinces, the teaching-learning process was retarded by extensive shortages of textbooks, supplies, equipment, and teachers. But in time the shortages were overcome throughout the islands, and the education process accelerated. One Filipino writer went so far as to claim that the insurrectos in Misamis Province were conquered "not by American guns but by American schools," and that "the boxes of books were the real peace makers."

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The extent to which chaplains participated in other parts of the civic action program is not clear. To relieve suffering and gain the confidence

of the natives, Charles C. Pierce gave medicines to 2,929 poor Filipinos.7 Sometime between 5 July 1899 and 30 June 1900, George D. Rice was “in command" of the town of Tigbanan and "made a most marked change for the better in its sanitary condition." Later, he was placed "in charge" of the town of Molo, "cleaned it, put it under civil government, & organized [the] native police force." " Such assignments were apparently the exception rather than the rule. Three chaplains, also apparent exceptions, became involved in the military pacification program. Cephas C. Bateman served as an intelligence officer with the 28th Infantry Regiment in Batangas Province.69 Wishing to send someone on a "delicate, mission" to a rebel leader's headquarters in November 1898, someone "who could be trusted not to excite suspicion," Brigadier General Samuel Ovenshine sent Charles C. Pierce; moreover, while within rebel lines, Pierce collected military information and later reported it to United States Army intelligence officers. When the 20th Kansas Infantry Volunteers began to receive sniper fire from the insurgents at Caloocan, John C. Schliemannconsidered too much of a recluse and religious man by Brigadier General Frederick Funston's soldiers-abandoned his noncombatant status, acquired a gun, stalked through the woods, and shot "a wily sniper from his perch in the trees." Instead of being officially reprimanded for becoming a combatant, he became, from that moment, one of the regiment's heroes."

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Apart from the pacification program, some chaplains were assigned special duties. In addition to serving as the First California's chaplain and superintendent of Manila public schools from August 1898 through May 1899, William D. McKinnon held the position of Acting Assistant Quartermaster in Charge of Cemeteries; his department issued all burial permits in Manila, buried paupers, and supervised two large cemeteries."2 In 1900 and 1901 Charles W. Freeland served as the Chief of the Department of Prison Records; he compiled and maintained the records of prisoners who were sentenced within the jurisdiction of the Provost Marshall General. It was Charles C. Pierce, however, who filled the most demanding position.

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In March 1899 the Chief Surgeon of VIII Corps asked Pierce to undertake, as a personal favor, a "most trying, depressing, and even dangerous" duty, and without inquiring in regard to the nature of the duty, Pierce answered affirmatively. Later that same day, orders were published that assigned him to supervision of the "identification of the dead and the preparation of the bodies for burial, including the process of embalming,