Pruden was disappointed at the disapprovals, particularly the one about the change of uniforms."1 Everything considered, however, the board— which was his idea-received a sympathetic hearing in the War Department and affected some significant changes on behalf of the chaplaincy.

ORVILLE J. NAVE AND THE FEDERAL COUNCIL OF CHURCHES

The efforts of the chaplains to affect changes were complemented by the activities of retired Army chaplain Orville J. Nave. In July 1972 Nave mailed a circular letter that announced a "Convention of Chaplains of the Army, Navy, National Guard, and of the Civil and Spanish-American Wars," which was to be held in September 1912 at Los Angeles, California, in connection with the "Annual Encampment of the Grand Army of the Republic." The letter urged the chaplains to attend "on behalf of the thousands of half-forgotten and neglected men of the Flag." It also said that a carefully planned "Program of problems of the Chaplains' services" was being prepared, which would be "considered in connection with carefully prepared papers setting forth these problems and their remedies." 32

When the chaplain conventioneers met, they organized into the "Association of Chaplains of the Military and Naval Forces of the United States," and elected Nave as the Association's president. Most important, they drafted a memorial addressed to the "Churches and General Christian Public," which covered much of the same ground that Nave and his "Chaplains' Movement" covered between 1887 and 1898: an increase in the number of chaplains; the inadequacy of chaplain supplies, equipment, and facilities; the need for maintaining the commissioned status of chaplains; Sabbath observance; temperance; church commissions on chaplains; small squad rooms rather than barracks for enlisted men; and a corps of chaplains with "suitable officers," presumably chaplains, at its head. Strangely enough, the memorial seemed to indicate an unawareness of the appreciation for the chaplaincy that had developed within the Army during and following the Spanish-American War, and of some of the changes affected by the board of chaplains which had met in 1909 at Fort Leavenworth.3

33

Two months after the convention, Nave sent the memorial and a

letter to President-elect Wilson. In the letter he requested as he had done to President-elect Harrison in 1888-that Wilson select "Secretaries of War and Navy . . . who will give careful consideration to the moral and religious welfare" of servicemen. He claimed that the "effectiveness or non-effectiveness of chaplains is largely determined by the attitude of the Secretaries to the moral and spiritual interests of the officers and men," and that the Secretaries "make or unmake the chaplains." 3* He also claimed that, in general:

. it is not recognized in the Department as seriously as we think it should be, that our soldiers and sailors are for the most part young men in the formative period of life, needing strong moral and religious supports and guidance, and consequently the chaplains are not given the moral support that is necessary to give them large influence. 35

34

Whether the letter had any influence upon Wilson is difficult to determine, but the memorial again stirred the interest of the churches in the moral and religious welfare of the Army and Navy. Numerous ecclesiastical bodies within the larger denominations considered the memorial, made resolutions based upon it, and sent them to elected state and Federal officials. The Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America, which had become interested in increasing the number of Navy chaplains in 1911, urged Congress to enact legislation that would "secure such increases of chaplains as are necessary and such administrative changes as will increase the efficiency of the chaplains." Moreover, its representatives visited or corresponded with the President and Secretaries of War and Navy about the same issues. Eventually, the efforts of Nave and the Federal Council began to bear fruit; in 1914 Congress passed a law that was formulated by Navy chaplain George L. Bayard, and that authorized an increase in the number of Navy chaplains from 22 to 55.36

Several other parts of the Association's memorial also received a sympathetic hearing in high places, and, as a result, reinforced and expedited the work of the 1909 board of chaplains. Congress appropriated $60,000 for large assembly tents and entertainment equipment for chaplains whose regiments were stationed along the Mexican border. The Secretary of War directed the Quartermaster General to include estimates for chapels, organs, and chapel furniture in his annual estimates, and to do so until chapels were provided at all posts where chaplains were stationed." The proposal for a corps of chaplains headed by "suitable of

ficers," however, received no support in the War Department. The General Staff believed that the necessity for such supervision was not evident: The interests of the Chaplains can well be attended to, if necessary, by The Adjutant General, and as it is believed the commanding officers are essentially interested in the work of the chaplains, the supervision by the commanding officer should not be interfered with.38

Furthermore, there was still a difference of opinion toward the proposal among chaplains on active duty. In no uncertain terms, George J. Waring claimed that putting a chaplain on the General Staff would be disastrous: It would cause religious friction, would interfere with regimental autonomy, and throughout outside interference would naturally displease commanding officers. The present system is excellent. Each chaplain is responsible to his own commanding officer, who knows him well, and all are directly under the Secretary of War. . . . My motto is, "let well enough alone." 39

When the Association met in September 1914 at Detroit, Michigan, again in connection with the "Encampment of the Grand Army of the Republic," it reorganized to include "other friends of the soldier and sailor" in its membership. It also changed its name to the "Association for the Promotion of the Moral and Religious Welfare of Our Soldiers and Sailors." Nave, who had been elected "Chaplain-in-Chief of the Grand Army of the Republic" at the encampment, was again selected as president; Henry K. Carroll, an Associate Secretary of the Federal Council, who operated the Council's Washington office, was elected as secretary. Significantly, the Association requested and received recognition and moral support from the Federal Council, and its program became a special concern of the Federal Council's Commission of Social Service. Although the Association changed its name again in November 1915 to "Religious Welfare League for the Army and Navy," its basic objectives remained the same, and it continued its relationship with the Federal Council. Furthermore, that working relationship continued to bring the religious needs of servicemen and the ministry of the chaplains before the churches.*°

In addition, the two organizations sought to completely stop political appointment of chaplains by asking each church to create a commission "for the purpose of selecting suitable clergymen to be recommended for appointment as chaplains." " Due to Nave's earlier efforts three churches the Presbyterian Church, U.S.A.; the Methodist Episcopal

Church, North; and the Protestant Episcopal Church-had already established such commissions in the 1890s. To achieve the same purpose, the Catholic Church also maintained an office in Washington, D.C. In 1915, apparently convinced of the value of such agencies, the Secretaries of War and Navy selected the Federal Council as the agency to obtain all Protestant candidates for chaplain vacancies. To that end, it was understood that the Federal Council would cooperate with the existing commissions, and with the leadership of churches without commissions. Moreover, to the same end, the Federal Council persuaded three churches the Disciples of Christ, the Lutheran General Council, and the Methodist Episcopal Church, South-to establish commissions. Shortly after the new arrangement went into effect, Henry K. Carroll of the Federal Council reported that it tended "to eliminate political influence and to make each denomination in some measure responsible for its candidates." 42 Nave and the Federal Council thus made a most significant and lasting contribution to the Army and Navy chaplaincies. TEMPERANCE, AMUSEMENTS, AND CHARACTER BUILDING LECTURES

While conditions within the War Department encouraged some chaplains to affect changes designed to increase efficiency, the movements within American churches continued to influence their ministries. They were especially swayed by the temperance crusade; they organized temperance societies, asked their parishioners to take total abstinence pledges, and took many opportunities to speak or write about the effects of drinking alcoholic beverages. Orville J. Nave even considered temperance a fit topic for a funeral sermon. While conducting a service at Fort Niobrara, Nebraska, for a soldier who had been shot by a drunken comrade, he mentioned the "two forces operating in every community for good and evil.” He said that the forces for righteousness were represented by the churches and the forces for ruin by the saloon, and that the chapel at Fort Niobrara stood for "instruction in righteousness" and the canteen for the “destruction of men." After Nave had spoken for about 10 minutes, the officer in charge of the funeral stepped forward and attempted to conclude the service, but Nave told him that he was in charge of the religious portion, and then continued his address. Following the funeral, the officer said that when a chaplain inveighs against the canteen, it is time for someone to "call him down." 43

The "old Army" was sometimes known as a "whiskey-drinking army," and not without some justification. Under the sutler and post trader systems, alcoholism among soldiers was a formidable problem. To promote temperance, therefore, the War Department in 1889 established the post exchange, which included reading and recreation rooms, a cooperative store, and a restaurant. There the troops could find recreation and amusement; they could also purchase at reasonable prices the “articles of ordinary use, wear, and consumption not supplied by the Government." Five percent of the profits were distributed to the band; the remainder was used to purchase recreation and athletic equipment and to improve the meals in the messes. Post exchange rules of order restricted the entry of civilians, prohibited gambling, and limited the sale of alcoholic beverages to beer and light wines.**

The general opinion of Army officers and noncommissioned officers was that the post exchange system was a decided improvement over the sutler and post trader systems. They believed that it kept many soldiers from resorting to "ardent spirits" in saloons off post. Statistics in the Secretary of War's report of 1899 tended to support their view. The report indicated that morality, health, and discipline had increased. and that desertions, court-martials, and drunkenness had decreased. It attributed much of the drunkenness to off-post saloons. Some prominent officers, however, opposed the sale of beer and light wines on posts; they wanted the "temptation of such dissipation" removed. Most chaplains agreed. Nave wrote a lengthly letter to the Atlanta Journal, which was later published in the Congressional Record, and said:

The Government canteen idea lowers the conscience standard of both officers and men. It inculcates the idea of tolerance of the vice of drinking. It holds up the idea of a temperate use of drink as against the idea of total abstinence. The ideals are utterly opposed to the ideals of the best moral forces of society.45

Sixteen other chaplains concurred with Nave; some chaplains, including Charles C. Pierce and Charles W. Freeland, favored the canteen. Their views were also recorded in the Congressional Record.**

Temperance organizations, especially the Women's Christian Temperance Union, crusaded for legislation that would abolish the sale of all intoxicating beverages on military installations, and the House of Representatives gave them what they desired. At that point, Secretary of War Root wrote the Senate that the post exchange canteen actually promoted temperance, and that abolishing the sale of beer and light wines