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religious organizations, newspapers an especially church papers.” Numerous students immediately followed Pruden's suggestion, and when their telegrams were forwarded to the Adjutant General, he ordered an investigation by the Inspector General's Department. The outcome was that Chaplains Pruden, Robert R. Fleming, and Ignatius Fealy were relieved for "inciting the student body of chaplains to acts of insubordination in protesting against the removal of the insignia of rank from chaplains' uniform." The Inspector General did not recommend a court-martial for Pruden because of the "scarcity of officers" and the "undesirable notoriety which a trial would create."

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Brent was unable to comprehend the negative reactions to the changes; he believed that the "commission of God as bestowed in the Ministry ought to be all that any [chaplain] . . . would ask for." 64 For practical reasons, however, experienced senior chaplains, who were as concerned as Brent about an efficient chaplaincy and the spiritual care of servicemen, believed differently. Chaplain John T. Axton said that within the Army, officers and enlisted men generally have the greatest respect for "those who have risen to the higher grades." In his experience he found that his insignia was never a barrier between him and the enlisted men, and that enlisted men "prefer to know the grade of the man who is advising them." Moreover, he was convinced that such insignia served to facilitate his ministry, and that chaplains who had "accomplished large things . . . would have accomplished more" if their grades and rank insignia had been "commensurate with the responsibilities undertaken." Equally important, he noted that the opportunity to advance in grade and wear the appropriate insignia provided incentive for Army personnel, even chaplains, to perform meritorious service. In short, two able and dedicated religious leaders were concerned about providing an effective ministry within the Army, but for good reasons differed on one point as to how that might be achieved. Due to Brent's position in Pershing's headquarters, however, his point of view prevailed and remained official Army policy until 19 March 1926, when grade insignia was restored to the chaplains.65 CIVILIAN RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS SUPPORT THE CHAPLAINCY

Without detracting from the dedicated and competent ministry of the chaplains who served during the war and after, much of their success was made possible by the support that they received from civilian

religious organizations. Religious groups in America immediately realized that the entry of the United States into the war charged them with the spiritual care of millions of displaced persons. Many of those shifting multitudes were in the Army or Navy and were located in stateside and overseas camps. Numerous others moved from their homes to obtain wartime jobs in the industrial centers. To meet that charge, many religious groups moved individually, but they soon realized that it could best be met cooperatively. Thus, most of them quickly joined with one of three organizations: the Jewish Welfare Board, the National Catholic War Council, and the General War-Time Commission of the Churches.

In April 1917, 15 Jewish groups organized the Jewish Welfare Board "to aid in building and upholding the morale" of soldiers and sailors "from the day of their departure from home to the day of their return. " After a series of preliminary meetings, representatives of about 35 Protestant bodies met in September 1917 at the call of the Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America and organized the General War-Time Commission. The membership of the commission consisted of the denominational war commissions and other denominational war service bodies; various interdenominational agencies, including the War Work Councils of the Young Men's Christian Association, the National Sunday School War Council, the Organization of Young People's Societies, and the American Bible Society; and the commissions and committees of the Federal Council. Most of the commission's effort was directed toward the moral and religious welfare of servicemen." In November 1917, after several meetings, including a convention of American Catholics in Washington, D.C., the Roman Catholic archbishop established the National Catholic War Council; the council assigned the Knights of Columbus the responsibility of caring for the recreational needs of soldiers and sailors.68

To provide maximum spiritual care for American servicemen, each of the three organizations gave careful and intensive support to the Army and Navy chaplaincies. They recruited clergymen for the chaplaincies, reviewed their applications, and recommended the best candidates to the War and Navy Departments for appointments and commissions. They worked out an arrangement whereby each denomination, based on its national membership, received a pro rata share of the appointments; the ratio of Protestant to Catholic chaplains was about two to one. As a result,

they discouraged political appointments and spared the Departments considerable administrative work." In that connection, a few days before the declaration of war, the General Secretary and an Associate Secretary of the Federal Council, while temporarily operating the Washington Office of the Federal Council, reached an agreement with the Secretary of War and the Adjutant General, and with the Secretary of the Navy, that the Council would have the power to "investigate and nominate all candidates for chaplains, and that the applications already on file in the Departments should be sent over to the Washintgon Office of the Federal Council." Moreover, on the same day, 28 March 1917, the two secretaries organized the General Committee of Army and Navy Chaplains, which assumed the functions of the Washington Advisory Committee of the Federal Council and the Religious Welfare League for the Army and Navy. Its membership consisted of distinguished Protestant church leaders and of chairmen or authorized representatives of denominational committees or commissions on chaplains. It served as a special committee of the Federal Council, and as a standing committee of the General WarTime Commission for the duration of the commission's existence.'

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During the war, the General Committee reviewed 7,931 applications for chaplaincies that were forwarded to it by the War and Navy Departments. Of that number, it recommended 2,592 applicants to the War Department; 1,317 candidates were commissioned." By comparison, 740 Roman Catholic priests were commissioned as Army chaplains. Their applications were processed by the office of Auxiliary Bishop Patrick J. Hayes, a member of the National Catholic War Council, whom the Pope designated as the ordinary for "all Roman Catholics who fight in war" and for all chaplains "for as long as they remain in service." " The Chapplains' Committee of the Jewish Welfare Board reviewed the applications of 149 rabbis and recommended 35 to the War Department; 25 were commissioned by Armistice Day."

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Considering its makeup, along with the number of applications it received from the many Protestant denominations, the General Committee found itself administering a complex program. Furthermore, it made its task no simpler when it raised the standards for becoming a Protestant chaplain. In addition to the traditional requirements of the War and Navy Departments, it sought men having college and preferably seminary training; at least one year of pastoral experience; personal traits of "force, tact, religious earnestness, physical endurance, and preferably with athletic training"; a history as "effective speakers and successful workers

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with men.' ** It was a simple matter to define the new qualifications, but when it came to recommending applicants to the Departments, it was difficult to work out a procedure to the satisfaction of all the committee members. The basic question was: Would all the power to recommend applicants to the Departments be in the hands of the denominations with the committee acting as a rubber stamp, or would the committee have real authority? 75

The issue was not one of denominationalism versus cooperation, but of providing the best chaplains for soldiers and sailors. Moreover, there was the desire to put the "entire body of Protestant churches behind each candidate," and to "make each man more truly a chaplain of all the Protestant men." 76 The matter was finally resolved when the committee adopted a carefully delineated nominating procedure: First, each applicant had to receive the endorsement of his denominational committee and the General Committee. Second, each candidate had to be nominated by his denominational chairman and the Secretary of the General Committee before his nomination was forwarded to the War or Navy Department. Third, the Secretary of the General Committee was given authority to disapprove any applicant endorsed by a denomination and nominated by a denominational chairman. If, however, the Secretary did disapprove a nomination, the General Committee decided the case. In addition, though the investigation of each applicant was the duty of the denominational committees or commissions, the committee was given the privilege of conducting its own investigation, and the files of the denominational groups were kept in the office of the General Committee. These procedures, which were apparently followed throughout the war, were not only an expression of the churches' concern for the spiritual care of servicemen, but a testimony to interdenominational cooperation."

There was also evidence of interfaith cooperation. The Act of 12 May 1917 continued the authorization of one chaplain for each regiment and for each 1,200 men in the coast artillery, but it made no provision for the large numbers of service troops. Moreover, it increased the size of each regiment from 1,200 to 3,600 men. In short, while the strength of the Army increased, the ratio of chaplains to the total strength of the Army decreased. Protestant and Catholic church leaders were understandably disturbed. In August 1917 the General Committee on Army and Navy Chaplains met and addressed the issue; Bishop Patrick J. Hayes' representative, Father Louis J. O'Hearn, was present. As a result of the meeting, a subcommittee drafted a proposed bill asking for the appoint

ment of one chaplain for every 1,200 men; it placed the proposal within a petition titled "To the President of the United States; To the Secretary of War; To the Congress of the United States." The document called for more chaplains who could better provide for the "spiritual and moral welfare of the various units in the service." It bore the signatures of 36 eminent Protestant church leaders from many denominations, and of seven official representatives of the Catholic Church."

On 27 September 1917 many of the signatories called on the President, Secretary of War, Chief of Staff, Adjutant General, and the officer in charge of chaplain personnel affairs in the Office of the Adjutant General, and presented them with a copy of the petition. They also presented a copy to the Senate Committee on Military Affairs. Eventually, an interfaith "Committee of Six" testified before the Senate Committee regarding the need for the bill the committee consisted of: Father John J. Burke (Chairman), Roman Catholic; Colonel Harry Cutler, Jewish; Bishop James De W. Perry, Dr. William Adams Brown, Dr. Robert E. Speer, and Mr. John R. Mott, Protestants. In January 1918, after a discussion with Bishop Brent, General Pershing called the War Department and recommended an increase in the number of chaplains for the duration of the war "to an average of three per regiment." Brent had been asked by the general to chair a "Board of Chaplains" for the purpose of studying and making recommendations in regard to organizing the chaplains within the A.E.F. Pershing's cable also said that the chaplains:

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should be of the highest character with reputations well established
as sensible, practical, active ministers or workers accustomed to
dealing with young men. They should be in vigorous health, as their
services will be needed under most trying circumstances. Appointees
should, of course, be subject to discharge for inefficiency like other
officers of the National Army.s

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Upon receiving the cablegram, Secretary of War Baker urged Congress to pass the bill quickly. Still, Congress dawdled, and the churchmen had to petition, interview, and lobby for the bill. They also promoted it extensively through both the secular and religious press, and encouraged Americans to write their Congressmen about the matter. Eventually, however, when their efforts seemed to be getting them. nowhere, they became exasperated, and the Chairman of the General War-Time Commission, Robert E. Speer, decided to express their feelings and concern in a letter to President Wilson's Secretary, Joseph

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