to stay within the law. But in the next year, when the Board of Visitors noted that ethics was no longer included in the curriculum, it declared that it was an anomaly for an institution to "make itself responsible for a young man's education and give him no instruction whatever in the science and practice of good morals." Furthermore, it "very strongly” recommended that the chaplain "give instruction in ethics twice a week to the members of the first class.' 99 11 Another reorganization of the faculty occurred in 1878, and once again, the chaplain's title became that of "Professor of Geography, History, and Ethics." 12 Reversion to his former status not only limited the amount of time that he could devote to his religious duties, but the Board of Visitors claimed in 1894 that it automatically made him a disciplinary figure and "hampered if not destroyed" his "moral and spiritual efficiency." It also stressed that he was responsible for the spiritual care of 1,500 people.13 Not until 1896-one month after the death of Chaplain Postlethwaite, a Reformed Episcopal clergyman-did Congress act to create the office of chaplain: the duties of chaplain at the Military Academy shall hereafter be performed by a clergyman to be appointed by the President for a term of four years, and the said chaplain shall be eligible for reappointment for an additional term or terms, and shall, while so serving, receive the same pay and allowances as are now allowed to a captain mounted.11 Under the new legislation Reverend Herbert Shipman, an Episcopalian became West Point's first full time chaplain and its first chaplain to serve in a civilian status. Ironically, and perhaps most significantly, the other factor that limited the chaplains' influence was the academy honor code. Writing about the code, William J. Roe said that: ... the young plebe found himself confronted by a moral atmosphere, an environment of faithfulness, far more rigorous and exacting than that of any churchly connection. The code of honor prevailing at West Point, while lacking in what so many regard as tokens of spirituality, was yet most wonderfully effective in the way of training. Doubtless it was more efficient than any church organization for molding and assimilating character. It . . . made evident to all who entered the Academy that . . . discipline must be conformed to . . . in everything; and—more vital still-not one jot or title of the law of honor could be even smirched, much less broken. The code of honor . . . neither sought nor required the stimulus of heavenly reward or any higher or nobler motive than its own maintenance, it was perhaps a mere mechanical substitute for a pure faith; but its prescriptions, demanding truthfulness, integrity, and courage, few and easily comprehended, were enforced impartially and utterly without mercy. For the liar, the thief, the coward, there was no repentance; his offense could not be forgiven, and was condoned only by his quick and usually grossly ignominious departure. 15 If Roe's observation was even approximately accurate, the honor code was the predominant religious force at the academy and undoubtedly the credo of many cadets. Thus, as Roe emphasized, it served as a substitute for "orthodox religion" and "genuine religious life." However, if any of the chaplains ever objected to the priority given to it in the academy community, none of them ever said so publicly. To a great extent one can only speculate regarding the influence of the chaplains upon the cadets; likewise, one can only conjecture about the influence of the priests from Highland Falls, New York, upon the Catholic cadets. Though the chapel at West Point was constructed in 1836 for the use of all cadets, the Catholic cadets, staff and faculty, enlisted cadre, and families, always attended Mass at Highland Falls. It was not until the mid-1890s that a priest from Highland Falls began a fund drive for the construction of a Catholic chapel on the academy grounds. The proposed construction of a denominational chapel started a controversy among some Protestant churches, but Congress finally resolved it in July 1898 by enacting a bill to permit "any denomination, sect or religion" to erect a building for religious worship." Chaplain French's tenure as chaplain and professor lasted one month short of 15 years. When Secretary of War Jefferson Davis offered the appointment to him in 1856, French was rector of the Church of the Epiphany in Washington, D.C. He was surprised to receive the offer, for he had not sought the position and was unaware of being under consideration for it." His schedule of Sunday services usually consisted of morning and evening services, a Sunday school, and an afternoon Bible class. 18 While serving as a mathematics instructor at the academy, Lieutenant Oliver O. Howard wrote his mother that he had heard two of Chaplain French's sermons, had had a private conversation with him, and had judged him to be a "good man” and a “spiritual Christian." 19 French was the kind of chaplain that Howard, a new convert appreciated. In the fall of 1857 he baptized Howard's children and helped him establish a prayer meeting for the cadets on Tuesday and Friday evenings. There were only five cadets at the first meeting, but as time passed, their number increased to a "beggarly dozen." 20 Howard conducted the meetings, which generally consisted of a hymn, a Bible reading, and prayer; sometimes he brought in a good book and read selections. On other occasions French visited the meeting and "took up the time." Howard wrote that some "remarkable conversions" occurred at the meetings, and that any cadet who made an "inquiry" was either sent or taken to the chaplain for counsel and prayer. The meetings continued throughout French's chaplaincy." In late 1858, possibly due to French's influence, Howard announced his decision to be confirmed in the Episcopal Church. For a while he also considered entering the ministry and commencing his studies under French, but Mrs. Howard was "much against it” and apparently discouraged him from taking that step. 22 Some cadets believed that French was more suited for a professorship at a seminary than at the academy. Writing to his cousin in 1858, Cadet Tully B. McCrea said that French was a "very good preacher and a smart man," " but that he did not care for the chaplain as an ethics and history instructor. McCrea claimed that his teaching methods made him "very unpopular with cadets." 23 Eleven years later, the Board of Visitors confirmed McCrea's claim by reporting that the ethics course had fallen "far below its standard" and had been "distasteful to the cadets" for a long time. Someone even proposed that the course be abolished, but the board believed that the course was too important and recommended instead that it be reorganized and made popular." It appeared evident that French was not as effective in the classroom as he was in the pulpit. He was still at the academy when he died in 1871, and upon announcing his death to the cadets, the academy superintendent said that it would awaken "recollections of the triple relationship he sustained toward them, as a Father, Teacher, and Friend.” 99 25 Chaplain French's successor, John Forsyth, served as professor and chaplain from 1871 to 1881, but little is known of his incumbency except that his title changed three times. He taught law and ethics, and apparently conducted a religious program similar to that of his predecessor. In addition, he sponsored the cadet prayer meetings that were initiated by Lieutenant Howard; when Howard returned to the academy in 1881 as a general to become superintendent, he noted that the meetings "were the 27 Following Forsyth's retirement, President Garfield designated William M. Postlethwaite as the academy's eleventh chaplain, but on the day that Postlethwaite was to be appointed, 2 July 1881, Garfield was assassinated. Consequently, his appointment was delayed until 2 December 1881. During his tenure, which lasted about three weeks short of 15 years, he acquired a reputation as an able teacher and religious leader. As a professor he conducted daily history classes and Saturday classes in ethics, and he spent much time in preparation. He read Hebrew, Greek, Latin, German, and French, and with a view toward writing a history text for the academy, he studied various histories, including J. Victor Duruy's histories of the middle ages, in their original languages. He also eadeavored to master American history, especially military history and the history of the Constitution. In the field of ethics he read books, such as Herbert Spencer's Data of Ethics, James Martineau's Types of Ethicial Theory, and John Fiske's Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy based on the Doctrine of Evolution with Criticisms on the positive Philosophy.28 30 Though he devoted most of his time to his professorship, Postlethwaite did not neglect his chaplaincy. In addition to delivering one sermon and an address each Sunday, he sponsored the cadet prayer meetings.29 Moreover, when Cadet Charles T. Leeds began a West Point chapter of the Y.M.C.A. Intercollegiate Bible Study Movement in 1890, Postlethwaite encouraged him and gave assistance when necessary; the class consisted of about 15 members. To extend his influence among the cadets, he also entertained small groups from the fourth class in his home on Saturday afternoons. The academy superintendent reported that there were only four communicants among the cadets when Postlethwaite assumed his position in 1881, but that that number had grown to 86 over the years. When Postlethwaite died on 10 January 1896, the superintendent also reported that he had awakened and cultivated religious interest among the cadets "to a remarkable degree," but he agreed with the 1894 Board of Visitors that the chaplain's influence would have been greater but for his duties as professor.31 During the years of Postlethwaite's chaplaincy, a legend, probably apocryphal, developed about his preaching. It was said that he had prepared only 12 sermons, that he repeated them in an undeviating 12 week cycle as long as he was chaplain, and that every cadet heard each one 17 times before graduating. The text for one sermon was: "Felix trembled" (Acts 24:25), and for many years a jellied dessert that was recurrently served in the cadet mess hall was known to cadets as "Felix trembled." " 32 When Postlethwaite's death was announced, an anonymous correspondent, who signed his name "Z," wrote to the Army-Navy Journal regarding the West Point chaplaincy. After recommending that the chaplaincy and professorship be separated by law, that a new law provide for the appointment of a civilian minister for a four-year period, and that the minister be reappointed for another four-year period if he proved acceptable, he philosophized about the appointee's requirements: Army chaplains should not be available for such appointments, as 33 When Congress acted on 3 April 1896 to permit the academy superintendent to make a four-year contract with a civilian clergyman whose role would be strictly that of a chaplain, the anonymous letter writer must have been pleased. He must have been doubly pleased with the appointment of Herbert Shipman, who was selected from among numerous applicants, including several Army chaplains. He was 27 years old, and his interest in atheltics brought him into contact with the physical side of the cadets' life, as well as the spiritual. Moreover, being unencumbered by a professorship, he devoted full time to his parish ministry. Aside from conducting the usual schedule of services, he inaugurated a daily 10-minute morning service in the Dialectic Hall immediately after the cadets returned from breakfast; it was reported that the service was "very greatly appreciated by the corps. "34 He also supported the Bible study class initiated six years earlier by Cadet Leeds, and when the enrollment grew and the class was divided into several groups, he conducted a class for the group leaders early on Sunday mornings.35 The cadets "looked upon him as a personal friend and helper." They held him in such "high esteem" that when he resigned in 1905, they dedicated to him the academy year book, The Howitzer, and extended to him the "heart-felt best wishes of the Corps he served so faithfully and so well." |