fierce foes, face to face on the field, knelt this year, fast friends, side by side in the Post Chapel at the altar of the Prince of Peace." 50

The Indians responded favorably to his ministry almost immediately. They frequently sought his advice, and about 50 attended special church services, song services, and catechism classes, conducted for them in early December 1891. Vattmann, a Catholic, reported that 17 of these catechumens presented themselves for baptism.51 Although he continued to give instruction to Indian soldiers and their families, he made no attempt to convert those belonging to other denominations. He respected the religious preference of others, and throughout his chaplaincy he arranged for both religious services and other ministrations for non-Catholics. On one occasion, he reported that he baptized three Indians-Corporal Sits-Down-Talking, Privates Fish and Eagle Feather-and gave them names of Edward, William, and Thomas. He also blessed marriages and conducted funeral services for the Indians."

But some of his most significant ministry to the Indians extended beyond the religious realm. To expedite the assimilation of the Indians into both the Army and white society, he compiled a Sioux Soldier's Vocabulary, which was actually a dictionary.53 He visited the Pine Ridge Agency at his own expense, consulted with those who were engaged in educating the Indians, and inquired regarding the Indians' habits and customs. There it was impressed upon him that teachers of Indians should possess the attributes of "savior faire, tact and enthusiasm," and that Indians who graduated from school could not find suitable employment. He brought both of these matters to the attention of his superior officer. 54

Believing that young Indians could find suitable employment in the Army, and given the opportunity to address 6,000 Indians at "The Great Sioux Council" of July 1892 at the Cheyenne Agency, Chaplain Vattmann said:

Years ago the chase was your work. Since the Indian can no longer
be a huntsman some advise him to be a farmer, others to be a
herdsman or a mechanic. The Army has lately offered to the young
an employment more congenial to his taste and better adapted to
his mental and physical faculties—the enlistment in the Army. In
the Army the Indian . . . has an opportunity to learn the language
... other branches of education . . . ways of the white man after
which he and his must pattern and he receives a considerable
financial compensation.55

His words may have reminded the Sioux of medicine man Wovoka who, after the battle of Wounded Knee, said to his people:

My children, my children. In days behind many times I called you to travel the hunting trail or . . . war trail. Now those trails are choked with sand; they are covered with grass, the young men cannot find them. My children, today I call upon you to travel a new trail, the only trail now open-the White Man's Road.. Although the similarity of thought in Vattmann's and Wovoka's words was probably only a coincidence, his remarks apparently resulted in the desired effect, for the Associated Press reporter covering the council said they "found favor with the headmen and the young bucks are eager to enlist.

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As Chaplain Vattmann became more proficient in speaking Sioux, he studied Indian sign language and translated the rudiments of geography and United States history into the Sioux tongue. All of this was undoubtedly invaluable to him when he started a school for the wives of enlisted Indians. Initially, he taught them the "most necessary English words," and later, reading, penmanship, and arithmetic. His aim in starting this school was "to bring them to the state of civilization enjoyed by the average wife of a white enlisted man," and he reported to the Commander in Chief of the Army, General John M. Schofield, on the short-range results of his classes:

The floors of their log cabins, the furniture, bedding and clothing are kept so clean as to elicit the praise of white visitors. The women have hung pictures upon the walls, curtains to the windows and care for the flowering house plants I gave them. They visit the town near by only when absolutely necessary, do not squat on the sidewalks and return as soon as possible. Their reputation for chastity is excellent. They are regularly and punctual at Divine Services and instructions and very grateful to their benefactors. In short, their progress has been more rapid than was expected.5o He also reported on the conduct and proficiency of the soldiers and commented at some length on their loyalty. Some of them received letters from Red Cloud and other Indians that shamed them for belonging to an Army which had killed their people in past years. But instead of leaving the Army, as the letters suggested, they showed the correspondence to Chaplain Vattmann, and then wrote Red Cloud, saying they "had learned better than to be led by him and his" and telling him to "mind his business." Vattmann said that utilizing Indians as soldiers "is profitable to

both the Indian race and the Army" and that "both races greatest harmony and good comradeship.

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Other chaplains also started a ministry to the Indians during the 1890s. While Captain Charles C. Pierce was stationed at Fort Apache, Arizona, he visited a nearby Indian school on Sunday afternoons and conducted services for the White Mountain Apaches. It was a great delight for him "to tell the old, old story to those to whom it seemed so very, very new," and since the room in which he held his services was usually completely filled, the Indians were apparently equally delighted to hear it. During one service Chaplain Pierce was interrupted by an elderly Indian who said, "You are telling us about God's Book . . . we never hear it before. Now tell us everything you know." After the service the old Indian continued to express his fascination for the Bible, saying that "Indians know nothing of God's Book." He speculated that the white man always had the Bible and kept it from the red man, but hoped that the Indian would soon get it. His words made Pierce feel ashamed and recognize the need for Christian work among the Indians.61

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George P. Robinson found it more difficult to minister to the Indians. He managed it for while at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, by making arrangements with Reverend Joshua R. Given, a Presbyterian missionary and full-blood Choctaw, to conduct services for the troop stationed there. Robinson preferred that arrangement, because Given could preach "more acceptably" than he could through an interpreter. Moreover, Given's services cost the government nothing. Robinson supervised the services, and about 40 Indians usually attended.63 When Given left his missionary work, Robinson's ministry to the Indians was unsuccessful. He was "unable to get them to church" and reported no services for them." On one occasion he even went to their camp with a Methodist licentiate, who addressed them there, but this, too, failed to motivate them to attend church services.65

There were also at Fort Sill some Chiricahua Apache prisoners of war who, with their leader Geronimo, had surrendered to General Miles in 1886. As prisoners of war they were first sent to Florida, then to Alabama, and finally, in 1894, to Fort Sill. For over 25 years they remained prisoners, and to them during that time, a generation was born and reared. And even though no members of that generation ever fought the white man, they, too, were held as prisoners.

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It was several years before any Christian ministry was provided for these Indians. Shortly after they arrived at Fort Sill, a Reformed Church

in America missionary and full-blooded Choctaw, Reverend Frank Hall Wright, wanted to do missionary work among them, but was prevented from doing so by the Army officer in charge. Moreover, no chaplain worked among them. It was not until 1899 that the officer then in charge of the prisoners said to Reverend Wright, "In passing stop sometime and preach to my people." Thus encouraged, Reverend Wright and a few other missionaries from his denomination began a ministry among the Fort Sill Apaches which lasted for about 14 years.**

CHAPLAINS AND ADDITIONAL DUTIES

Although chaplains were undoubtedly aware of the continuous theological debates among churchmen and the denominationalism of the churches, they apparently did not participate in either. Instead they devoted their time and energy to conducting at least one service on post each Sunday, burying the dead, visiting the sick, and operating the post schools. The latter duty was especially time-consuming. And though it was not legally required of them, they were expected to perform marriages and baptisms. In addition, they were often expected to undertake other duties such as librarian, post gardener, manager of the commissary and post bakery, post treasurer, and defense counsel at courts-martial. Much of their time was given to these duties. In fact, it was not uncommon for commanders to judge a chaplain's value to the Army by how many non-chaplain duties he performed, and how well he did them."

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Chaplain John Harrison Macomber said if anyone imagined that a chaplaincy was a mere sinecure and that a chaplain had "nothing to do, no care or responsibility, he had better reconstruct his opinion." He also said that a chaplain would be "utterly unworthy" of his position if he was content to do only what was legally required of him, adding that the "faithful Chaplain is constantly on the alert to see how much, not how little, he can do for the pleasure and profit of the entire garrison." His remarks were apparently directed to those of the general public who opined that chaplains "are a kind of supernumerary, don't do much good, and but little harm, draw their pay and pass a life of ease without thought or much care for anything or any person save themselves, and watching payday." " Then, too, as one who later attempted to persuade the Adjutant General to elevate the requirements for becoming a chaplain, his comments might have contained a subtle message for both prospective chaplains and chaplains whose service had been perfunctory."

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Almost every chaplain operated the post library and commented about it in monthly reports or annual individual service reports. At Fort Concho, Texas, Chaplain Norman Badger operated the library “in the hall between his quarters and the Morrisons'," and kept it properly arranged and catalogued." Chaplain David White did not even have a library, never mind a hall, so he finally requested and was granted a leave of absence to go East to procure books and periodicals."3 On the other hand, as time passed, some collections became quite large and important to the cultural, educational, and religious life of the post. The shelves were stocked with books and literature purchased with post and quartermaster funds, given by individuals and groups, and solicited by chaplains from denominational publishing houses and such organizations as the Ladies Aid Society in Washington, D.C.; the U.S. Army Aid Association in New York City; and the New York City Central Y.M.C.A." Aside from the religious volumes and literature used and distributed by the chaplains in their ministry, these collections contained such entries as: Walter Scott's Novels, Dickens' Novels, Cooper's Leather-Stocking Series, Washington Irving's Works, Shakespeare's Works, Ben Hur, Plutarch's Lives, Pilgrim's Progress, Macaulay's History of England, Hume's History of England, Gibbon's History of Rome, Livingstone and Stanley's Travels, Tom Brown's School Days; Creasy's Decisive Battles; and Confessions of An Opium Eater." It was not uncommon for chaplains to operate these libraries with a sense of mission. Walter Marvine hoped his would give "pleasure to hundreds," "furnish an impulse toward better lives," and be the "means of some soul of revealing Him, who is the Way, the Truth and the Life." 76

Another duty which some chaplains undertook was that of post gardener. The post surgeon at Fort Concho, Texas, complimented 59year-old Nordan Badger who managed the garden so efficiently that it provided almost daily lettuce, beans, corn, squashes, cantalopes, watermelons, okra, peas, and potatoes to the companies, officers, and hospital." Chaplain Alpha Wright, who entered the chaplaincy at age 50 in 1863, served as gardener at Forts Laramie and D. A. Russell in Wyoming Territory from 1866 to 1872.78 While the troops were chasing Indians, cutting wood, or hunting for meat, he worked eight hours daily to cultivate 20 acres and supply vegetables for the hospital and garrison. Since there were no other gardens within 200 miles, his garden was very important to the health of the post; fresh vegetables helped to prevent an outbreak of scurvy, which was always a threat, especially during the winter. Chaplain