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a sergeant was assigned to assist him, and together they endeavored "to keep every man cheerfully busy every moment, and to make each man feel that much good is expected of him." 103 They apparently made a good team, because in 1879 General Ord again took notice of Mullins' success and reported to higher headquarters that it showed "earnest and perservering attention and deserves commendation." 104 And the commendation he eventually received was his new assignment in Colonel McCook's office.

As McCook's assistant Chaplain Mullins endeavored to upgrade and standardize the Army's education system and to establish and adequately stock libraries and reading rooms at all posts. When McCook received orders to assume command of a regiment, Mullins was selected to succeed him. He took charge in April 1881 and continued to build on the foundation laid by McCook. During his tenure he achieved a greater standardization of text books and curriculum and arranged for closer inspections of the post schools. Though he gave special attention to the need for a corps of trained professional teachers, Congress did not see fit to legislate the corps into existence, so he continued to press for better teachers from among the enlisted ranks.105 Moreover, he still visualized the transforming effect of the education process. To induce this effect, he apparently arranged for students to learn penmanship from a book of "Spencerian morals. ." 106 And believing that the schoolmaster and the Bible were the hope of the nation, he endeavored to place the Bible and a history of the United States in the hands of every soldier and child on every post, and to see that they were able to read both volumes. He was convinced that a knowledge of these books would “conduce to a warm patriotism and a noble life." 107

His major goal, however, seemed to be compulsory attendance at post schools for all men without an elementary education, and in this the Army-Navy Journal supported him editorially. In 1881 he recommended that the Army adopt a standard of education for noncommissioned officers and require them to attend school until they could pass an examination that showed evidence of reaching that standard. In the next year he recommended compulsory education for all enlisted men.108 His rationale for both recommendations was that modern warfare demands a higher standard and that good discipline would be a by-product; they received a mixed reaction from the field, and neither recommendation was adopted during his term of office. Some influential and top-ranking

officers said that compulsory education would violate the soldier's constitutional rights, or create friction among the enlisted men and cause many of them to desert, 109

111

Due to a disability, Chaplain Mullins was relieved as chief of education in 1885; but he returned to his regiment with the satisfaction that the children's schools were operating well, and that the soldiers' schools were fulfilling their purpose so far as the "means provided and material to be educated" would permit. About one year later, poor health impelled him to take a long leave of absence, and in 1891 he finally retired from the Army.110 In the meantime, Chaplain George D. Crocker succeeded him as chief of education and served in that position until his retirement about one year later. His successor was Chaplain George P. Robinson, who served until 1889, when the position was abolished and the assistant adjutants general of each department headquarters assumed general supervision of the department post schools. Both Crocker and Robinson attempted to further institutionalize what McCook and Mullins had started; during Robinson's term of office, Mullins' major goal finally became a reality. In 1889 Congress passed legislation making attendance at post schools a military obligation for all men without an elementary education.1

112

In 1890 the War Department published a general order that gave post commanders responsibility for the methods of management and instruction in the post schools, but under such special instructions as were deemed necessary by the departmental commanders. The departmental commanders were also charged with the selection of textbooks.113 The assistant adjutants general of the departments reported that there were 91 post schools, with a total enrollment of 2,323 enlisted men and 757 children. They also addressed the problems that continued to retard the educational process: a shortage of competent teachers, an inadequate supply of textbooks and school supplies, and unsuitable school buildings and furniture. The first of these problems was the greatest, and the Major General Commanding the Army recommended Congressional legislation authorizing a fully-qualified teacher for each post.

114

To some degree, the old problems continued at many posts. It also became obvious that numerous officers and enlisted men disliked the compulsory attendance requirement.115 Some officers recommended that the subjects taught be related to the military profession.116 In 1894 Congress passed legislation forbidding the enlistment of men unable to

read, write, and speak English at a 13-year-old level, and the need for teaching rudimentary subjects began to diminish.11 Moreover, as a result of this law, the Major General Commanding the Army recommended the discontinuance of compulsory attendance, and concurred with his Adjutant General's recommendation that the curriculum consist of practical military subjects, with proficiency in these subjects to be considered in making promotions.118 The Adjutant General's recommendation was adopted almost immediately. In addition, the 1895 Army regulations authorized post commanders to assign qualified officers to supervise the post schools, even at chaplain posts.119 This change was apparently due to a belief held by some commanders that a few chaplains were either not qualified to teach, or too elderly to direct the education of soldiers.120 Some chaplains resented the change, but those deemed qualified by their commanders continued to operate the schools. 121

Chaplain Allen Allensworth was extremely well-qualified to supervise the educational process at any post and, like Chaplain Mullins, was widely recognized for his achievements in the field of education. He was the second black to be appointed as a Regular Army chaplain, and he served with the 24th Infantry Regiment from 1886 until his retirement in 1906. When Congress authorized the Army in 1904 to promote chaplians of "exceptional efficiency" to major, four were selected and promoted on the same day; Allensworth was one of them.122 In 1906 he also became the second chaplain and first black officer to be promoted to lieutenant colonel, and his promotion was touted by the Negro press as "the highest honor ever given an Afro-American in the Army." "

Allensworth brought an "up-from-slavery" background into the Army. Born in Kentucky in 1843, he developed a thirst for learning as a boy while playing school with his owner's son; but when his master discovered this, he attempted to quench it by separating him from his mother and sending him away to work on a tobacco farm. Allensworth's thirst was unquenchable, however, and he continued to learn through the use of a Bible and a Webster speller. After a savage beating by an overseer in 1855, he twice attempted an escape into Canada, but on each occasion was quickly captured and returned to his owner. He was then sold to a slave trader who took him to New Orleans and sold him to a horse racer. His new owner used him for a while as a jockey, and then sold him to a merchant in Jackson, Mississippi; however, when the merchant learned that his young slave could read and write, he voided

the sale. Eventually, Allensworth was sold to a man in Louisville, Kentucky, who used him as a houseboy.

124

About one year after the Civil War began, Allensworth again ran away from his owner and started for Canada but, instead, joined the hospital corps of the 44th Illinois Infantry and served as a civilian nurse. In April 1863 he joined the U.S. Navy, was promoted to petty officer in just a short time, and served until April 1865. Upon receiving his discharge, he returned to Louisville, where he was reunited with his mother. He also held several jobs in Southern Illinois and Louisville, briefly operated two successful restaurants in St. Louis, and experienced a religious conversion, joining a Louisville Baptist church. In 1867 he enrolled in the first school he ever attended; his progress as a student was so rapid that the principal selected him to teach in a Freedmen's Bureau school. In the meantime, he was ordained into the Baptist ministry and began to preach. Upon learning that the more he taught the less he knew, he enrolled in a course of study in education and religion at Roger Williams University in Nashville, Tennessee. When he finished his studies there, he taught school in Georgetown, Kentucky, until the General Association of Colored Baptists selected him as their financial agent. From this position he went into the pastoral ministry, served several Kentucky churches, and acquired a reputation as a forceful preacher and religious educator. He also served for several years in some of his denomination's leading religious education positions. When he entered the chaplaincy, he was pastor of the Union Baptist Church in Cincinnati, Ohio.125

Allensworth was also active in Republican politics, and because of his tact, moderate disposition, and ability as a public speaker, the Republican convention of Kentucky's Third Congressional District twice elected him as a delegate-Kentucky's only black delegate in both 1880 and 1884 to the National Republican Convention.126 But both his political 1884-to activities and his race posed a problem for him when he decided to apply for a regimental chaplaincy. There was a Democratic administration in the nation's capital, and Grover Cleveland was the President. Allensworth, however, turned this problem to his advantage. Not only did he persuade several congressmen, businessmen, and ministers to endorse his application, but also his former slavemaster, Mrs. A. P. Starbird.127 Most important, he sent a clever and carefully-worded letter to Daniel Lamont, the President's private secretary.

A number of my Democratic friends in Kentucky and Ohio, desir-
ing to strengthen the administration and party among my people,

encouraged me to apply to the president for appointment, by him,
as Chaplain in the 24th regiment of Colored Troops.
I assure
the administration that if the appointment is made, it will not be
dishonored. I want to show my people that a Democrat adminis-
tration can appoint a Colored Chaplain as well as a Republican
administration did, which appointed Mr. Plummer, to the 9th
Calvary (sic).128

In April 1896 President Cleveland, signed Allenworth's appointment.

Both his applicant and appointment were duly noted in newspapers. A reporter for The Cincinnati Enquirer referred to him in a light vein as a "colored mugwump," and told of his success in the political and religious fields.129 Knowing that attention was focused upon him and wanting to make a good start in the Army, Allensworth tended to his duties when he reported to Fort Supply, Oklahoma. He continued the education program established by Chaplain James C. Laverty and, drawing upon his background in both secular and religious education, managed it quite well.130 When asked about his social status in the Army, he said that it was something he patiently allowed to take its natural course, and that his social relation at Fort Supply were "so far . . . pleasant and considerate." 131 In 1887 his alma mater, Roger Williams University, recognized his achievements and his "course as a Christian gentleman and man of scholastic habits," by conferring upon him an honorary Master of Arts degree.132

His regiment transferred to Fort Bayard, New Mexico, in June 1888, and there he began his own program of education. He used enlisted men as teachers. When an elementary education for enlisted men became compulsory, 118 men enrolled for school; to successfully meet this increase, he gave special attention to the organization of classes and teacher training. He also developed a graded course of study for both children and soldiers, and printed it in a pamphlet titled Outline of Course of Study, and the Rules Governing Post Schools of Ft. Bayard, N.M. The pamphlet described his education program and the content of each subject at every level. His commander approved of the program and praised him for his "energy and efficiency." 133 Someone wrote a letter to the Army-Navy Journal and said that if all officers did their duty as enthusiastically as Allensworth, "there could be no question anywhere of starting up a school for lack of paraphernalia or suitable teachers." 134 Brigadier General McCook, who was then the commander of the Department of Arizona and still promoting education, was also enthusiastic, and recommended Allensworth's program to the Commanding General

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