porter, and hence cannot be classed as a surplus producer, considering food products as a whole. In edible grains the production in the United States is 23 per cent more than the amount retained, in meat 6 per cent, and in dairy products 20 per cent; but only 24 per cent of the sugar required is produced at home, practically none of the tea and coffee, and 6 per cent less than is used of fruits and nuts.

The quantity of edible grains exported from Canada equals 129 per cent of the amount retained, of meat 8 per cent, and of dairy products 12 per cent. The country most dependent upon importation from foreign countries is the United Kingdom, which produces only 27 per cent of her food requirement of edible grains, but 53 per cent of her meats, 62 of dairy products, 58 of her poultry, more than 90 of her vegetables, and 21 per cent of her fruits. Germany produces about 82 per cent of the edible grains required (including flour), about 93 per cent of meats, 92 of dairy products, 67 of poultry, 99 of vegetables, 48 of fruits, and exports 77 per cent as much sugar as she consumes. France produces about 93 per cent of her edible grain requirements, 98 per cent of meats, 80 of poultry, 91 of sugar, and slightly more than is consumed of dairy products, vegetables and fruits. Austria-Hungary is almost self-sustaining in food supplies; she is a fairly large exporter of sugar and a large importer of coffee, but in most other food products the imports and exports nearly balance. Russia is a surplus producer of food stuffs, exporting 19 per cent of her production of edible grains; the exports of dairy products equal about 10 per cent of the home requirement, of poultry 19, of vegetables 4, and of sugar 33 per cent.

CONSERVATION OF FOOD SUPPLIES. Measures were early adopted in various European countries after the outbreak of the war to economize the supply of food crops and to encourage planting on a liberal scale. Notably in Germany, the matter has been the subject of various governmental actions. The feeding of wheat and rye to live stock in that country was prohibited, and the attention of farmers was called to various kinds of coarse fodders and leaves for bedding which it was urged should be used for their live stock in place of oats and straw, in order that the latter might be saved for the use of the army. The amount of grain used for distilling was restricted to 60 per cent of the normal amount, and mills were permitted to convert a larger percentage of grain into flour, 10 per cent of rye being allowed as an admixture of wheat flour, and 20 per cent of potato flour added to rye flour. Early in the fall an order was issued in Germany directing that all potatoes be thoroughly dug, leaving no tubers in the ground, and that the tops be dried or ensiled for feed. All tubers of doubtful keeping quality were directed to be dried at once, and the drying establishments were required to operate day and night. Large quantities of potatoes were quired to be dried for food, and it was advised that potatoes be mixed with grain flour in making bread. To offset the wheat shortage would require the use of about 100 kilograms of potatoes per capita.

re

In Great Britain the great importance was impressed upon the farmers "in the national interest" of largely increasing the acreage under wheat during the coming season. A proposal

to hold out a financial inducement to that end was considered but not thought_justified. An act was passed empowering the Board of Agriculture to regulate and restrict the slaughter of animals used for human food, in order to prevent depletion of the home meat supply and insure the maintenance of a sufficient breeding stock. Under this act it has been directed that the slaughter of immature or breeding stock of every description be avoided, and that where circumstances permit the total head of live stock be increased, particularly animals like pigs which mature quickly. At the same time, the strictest economy and foresight are urged in feeding, using the cheapest efficient forms of food and allowing no waste spaces capable of producing food for animals. The exportation of wheat and of feeding stuffs for animals is generally forbidden by the countries at war. ECONOMICS OF FARMING. Very many of the largest and most vital questions of farming centre, not merely in the means of improving production, but in the economic phases of the industry. This is seen to apply in determining the desirability of increased production, the type of farming to be followed, and the disposition of the large staples. The cotton crisis in the Southern States has called sharp attention to the errors of. too narrow specialization. The Secretary of Agriculture points out in his annual report that too exclusive devotion to a single crop anywhere is unwise for normal times, and brings disaster in times of disturbance; it prevents the full utilization of land and labor, fails to fill the gaps in the work schedule, and furnishes no reserve. "No Southern State," he says, "is giving sufficient attention to the production of foodstuffs, either for human beings or for live stock. A conservative estimate indicates that Texas imports from other States annually more than $50,000,000 worth of wheat, corn, and oats; Georgia more than $24,000,000; South Carolina more than $20,000,000; 12 Southern States import more than $175,000,000 worth of these three commodities and $48,000,000 worth of meats, dairy products, and poultry products. . . . If the farmers in the South had heretofore practiced diversification on a sufficiently large scale, producing their own home supplies, that section would not be in its present hard case."

Similarly, a commission reporting the past year on the grain markets of the Province of Saskatchewan concluded that exclusive grain raising in that country, as practiced by even the best farmers, is not remunerative; and recommended that every possible encouragement be given to bring about great diversity in the products of the farms. The commission finds that it costs the farmers more to have the exportable surplus grain of Western Canada placed on the present ultimate market than the farmers of any other large exporting country have to pay; and it holds that all elevators, terminal, transfer, and for internal storage, should be owned and operated by the Dominion Government, and in addition provision made for the storage of grain on the farms.

There has been much popular discussion of the responsibility of the farmer for high prices, through his failure to make his acres more productive; and it has been assumed that large yields are always profitable, and that the best farmer is the one who raises the most per acre.

The fallacy or half truth of this has been brought out by economic studies of the ques tion, which take account of the present transition stage between the extensive farming of the new world and the intensive methods of the old countries. Production per acre is not the American standard but rather the amount of produce for each person engaged in agriculture, and by this test the American farmer is said to be from two to six times as efficient as most of his competitors. Relatively speaking, extensive farming is still regarded as economically the sound programme in American agriculture, for the country is only just emerging from the pioneer stage in which land had little value and labor was the principal element in the cost of production. Land is now growing more scarce, and hence costly, and virgin conditions are rapidly passing away, so that other elements than labor have begun to enter into the cost of production. As a general rule increased yield means greater cost, not only per acre but per bushel; and the question in intensified agriculture is not how much the farmer can produce per acre but how much he can afford to produce, which in turn depends upon the price of the product. Extreme yields are profitable only with high prices, even with the best farmers; hence the yield per acre cannot be recklessly increased.

Dean Davenport, of the University of Illinois, has called attention to the law of diminishing returns in agriculture, and applied it to show the danger of overcapitalization in attempts to secure abnormally high yields. "We have not yet reached the intensive stage where it will pay either the producer or the consumer to attempt maximum yields on American land," and hence "we are not to step at once and blindly into expensive forms of intensive agriculture." However, present yields are below what the climate and general situation ought to produce, owing to certain adverse conditions which can be easily corrected by the use of lime, fertilizers, better seed, more rational culture, etc. By relatively inexpensive methods belonging to a transition stage, the yield may be increased without seriously raising the cost.

Until recently there have been few data on the cost of production, the economics of different kinds of farming as a business, and the cause of success or failure. Such data are being provided by farm management studies and surveys. These surveys are showing the disadvantages farmers labor under, the small returns they receive for their labor and investment, and some practical means of improvement. They have furnished cumulative evidence that modern machinery, with the use of more horses and fewer men, has made the farm of less than 100 acres an inefficient unit in the Central West. One of the latest of these studies, published during the year, relates to representative areas in the corn belt, Indiana, Illinois, and Iowa (U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 41). Seven hundred farms were studied, in regions where the soil is rich, with ample rainfall. The average labor income of farm owners was found to be $408 a year, and of tenants $870, in addition to house and the farm products used in the home. The landlords received an average of 3.5 per cent on their investment.

Dr. Warren, of Cornell, as a result of his studies, believes that for general farming the farms as at present laid out are now too small,

and that with the proper number of horses to operate machinery and make the labor efficient, 160 to 200 acres are required for efficiency in general farming. This means four horses and usually two men most of the time. He points out that while the average American farmer is making interest on his capital and fair wages for his labor, the interest is not high enough to attract any large amount of money from the cities and the wages are not high enough to cause any large number of men to move from the city to the country; but with the broader outlook the prospects are keeping far more boys on the farms.

From an investigation of wheat production on a large scale in Argentina, in the southern part of the Province of Buenos Aires, the statistical department of the Ministry of Agriculture finds the cost to amount to 66 cents a bushel, including the rent of land and interest on investment. The wheat sold for 80 cents a bushel. MARKETING AND DISTRIBUTION. The work of the Department of Agriculture in this field, started last year, has been greatly expanded and extended. Congress has increased the appropriation for the purpose from $50,000 to $200,000. The studies already conducted show a lack of system and economy in getting products from the producer to the consumer. For example, hogs raised in Illinois and sold in Indianapolis were found to be slaughtered at Boston, and a part of the cured bacon shipped to Los Angeles; while Michigan dressed veal was shipped by express to commission houses in Chicago and then returned to the identical shipping points from which it came for local retail consumption.

Coöperative selling has received special attention and records have been obtained of more than 8500 marketing associations, about 2700 coöperative and farmers' elevators, 2500 coöperative and farmers' creameries, and more than 1000 cooperative fruit and produce associations. Over a billion dollars' worth of agricultural products are reported to be marketed annually in the United States by coöperative and farmers' associations. The establishment of standards or uniform methods of grading for agricultural products protects the farmer from injustice, affords incentive to him to improve the quality, and insures the consumer in securing the exact commodity for which he pays a specific price. A few years ago the Department proposed standard grades for cotton, which are being widely adopted, and during the past year Congress enacted a Cotton Futures Act (see AGRICULTURAL LEGISLATION), which stipulates that future contracts must be based on these standards. Grades for commercial corn were promulgated during the year, and work is in progress in fixing commercial grades of grains, especially wheat.

The official grading of Manila hemp and other fibre products in the Philippines has been provided for by a law passed by the insular legislature, effective Jan. 1, 1915. The grading of these fibres is to be done only in establishments licensed by the director of agriculture. Inspection of the grading and an accompanying certifi cate are provided for. It has been recognized that some such protection of the hemp producing interests and the good name of Philippine hemp and other fibres was necessary.

A committee of wool growers, which met in conference at Washington during the year, presented a report in which it called attention to

the absence in the United States of any generally accepted standards for the determination of the various grades of wool. This makes it impossible for the wool grower to know the grade of wool he is producing or its value in the market. The preparation of wool standards by the Department of Agriculture was strongly urged.

A new marketing bureau has been established in New York State, to find a profitable market for farm products of the State and devise an economic system of distribution. The fact that New York City is not only a great consumer but a great distributing centre leads to the pouring into that city of immense quantities of food, which gives great opportunity for fixing prices believed to be unwarranted by the law of supply and demand. The building up of local markets throughout the State, so that home grown products may be delivered directly to their final destination, is one of the remedies contemplated. While similar bureaus exist in several other States, notably Wisconsin and Minnesota, the New York bureau is organized on a broader and more effective basis.

The parcel post has served to bring producer and consumer closer together by favoring direct buying and selling; and the Post Office Department has used its efforts to popularize such dealing, through instruction in packing, exhibits at agricultural fairs, and the publication of lists of farmers prepared to supply various products. The volume of this business has been enormously increased during the year. The standardizing of products has been found one of the essential things in parcel post marketing.

RURAL CREDIT. The United States and American commissions on coöperation and rural credit, which spent several months in Europe in 1913 studying coöperative and land mortgage banks, rural credit unions, and similar organizations, presented the results of these studies for publication. The material collected by the American commission was issued as a Senate document of over 900 pages, entitled "Agricultural Coöperation and Rural Credit in Europe" (U. S. Senate, 63d Cong., 1st Sess., Doc. 214). The United States commission prepared a careful analysis of its findings, with modifications necessary to meet American conditions. The report dealt with land mortgage or long term credit, and personal or short term credit, and was published in a document entitled "Agricultural Credit" (U. S. Senate, 63d Cong., 2d Sess., Doc. 380). The commission also framed a bill to provide for the establishment, operation, and supervision of a national farm land bank system, which was introduced in the Senate. Various other measures have been advanced, but none of these has passed Congress. The National Grange has been active in urging legislation, and in the fall took steps to organize a rural credit league for that purpose.

Provision has been made for the organization of a State land bank in New York, under a new State law. (See AGRICULTURAL LEGISLATION.) In the Philippines, arrangements have been made whereby the government will deposit with the Bank of the Philippine Islands $1,000,000 to be loaned to farmers in all parts of the islands at not more than 8 per cent interest. It is hoped that this will serve to bring down the prevailing rate of interest. A coöperative farm mortgage association act was recently passed in Saskatchewan, enabling farmers to obtain loans at low

rates by giving a government guaranty to bonds or debentures issued by an association of farmers, so that these bonds may be placed in the money markets of the world. An added advantage is the opportunity of repaying a loan at any time under easy conditions.

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION. A matter of vast importance was the passage by the U. S. Congress of an act providing for the instruction and aid of farmers through field demonstrations, advice, personal contact, the diffusion of information, etc. (See AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION.) This measure is one of the most striking educational measures ever adopted by any government. It is an attempt to carry to the men and women working at their daily tasks on the farm the teachings of better agriculture and homemaking, and to extend leadership to them and to their organizations. Various forms of extension work have been carried on by the agricultural colleges in several of the States, and the Department of Agriculture has for several years been conducting demonstration work with farmers, frequently in coöperation with the agricultural colleges. As developed, this demonstration work has taken the form of providing county agricultural agents, usually with the coöperation of the county, who spend their time out among the farmers, supervising demonstration trials on their lands, holding meetings, giving personal advice, promoting organization and coöperation, and otherwise stimulating the agriculture of the county. The range of service of these county agents is very wide, including the introduction of better breeding animals, testing of cattle for tuberculosis, vaccination of hogs against cholera, development of local supplies of lime, testing seeds, inducing farmers to try new crops, organization of clubs, holding short courses, establishment of reading courses, introduction of agriculture in the local rural schools, directing boys to the agricultural college, and many other kinds of assistance.

For the past year the Department had available considerably over a million dollars for this purpose, and this sum was generously supplemented by State, county, and local contributions. The new extension act is coöperative, and under it the Department will join hands with the States in conducting this work, centring it in each State at the agricultural college. The ultimate aim is an agricultural agent in every county, aided by experts from the agricultural colleges and special officers for organizing and conducting boys' and girls' clubs, etc. The work has met with great popularity and success, and promises to be a great power for the development of the industry.

LAND, AGRICULTURAL AND WASTE. Considerable attention has been given of late to the area of waste or uncultivated land in various countries, as indicating the opportunity for agricultural development. The presidential address of Mr. A. D. Hall before the agricultural section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, at its 1914 meeting in Australia, dealt specifically with this subject. He made the surprising statement that within 50 miles of London blocks of a thousand acres of waste land may be found, while Belgium and Holland have large districts that are little more than desert. Germany possesses something approaching ten million acres of uncultivated land, and a government department has been created to reclaim

and colonize it. Mr. Hall outlined many of the methods which modern science has developed for improving such land. See SOILS.

Only 27 per cent of the tillable land of continental United States is actually under cultivation, according to estimates published during the year by the Department of Agriculture. Of the total area of continental United States, 60 per cent, or 1,140,000,000 acres, is estimated to be tillable, i.e. capable of being brought under the plow. This includes areas which may in future be subdued by clearing, drainage, irrigation, etc. An additional 19 per cent, or 361,000,000 acres, is considered valuable for pasturage and fruits, although nontillable. This leaves only 21 per cent, or 399,000,000 acres, of no use to agriculture, present or future. According to the last census, the land area in crops was 311,000,000 acres, equivalent to about 27 per cent of the estimated potential tillable area of the nation, excluding foreign possessions. In other words, for every 100 acres now tillable, about 375 acres may be tilled when the country is fully developed. The undeveloped areas lie mostly in certain Western States, the largest amount in the Eastern States being in Florida. Naturally the land most easily brought into a state of cultivation, as in the great Mississippi Valley, was the first to be taken up; extension of tilled areas will be at greater expense for improvement.

In Belgium a special commission on the cultivation of waste land reported early in 1914, estimating that there are more than a quarter of a million acres which might be brought under cultivation, exclusive of land which might be rendered more productive by improvement, especially by drainage. Drainage is advocated for reclaiming waste land, with governmental aid and encouragement. Data collected for the new land valuation in France and published during the year show that 65.28 per cent of the entire land area, exclusive of that occupied by build ings, is under cultivation or in pasture, 19 per cent in forest, alder, willow, and similar plantations, and less than 15 per cent in heath, swamp, and other waste land. The latter, however, ag gregates nearly 18,000,000 acres. The arable land increased from 1851 to 1879 by nearly a million acres, after which it decreased so that it is now 22 million acres less than in 1851, although the area in meadows and pastures increased nearly 5,000,000 acres during that time. Both capital value and rental of land increased considerably from 1851 to 1879, after which they sank to nearly the same level as in 1851 (or about 33 per cent), attributed not to a decrease of the gross returns, but to the net returns from agricultural produce.

Extensive and far-reaching land reforms are in progress in Russia under a law promulgated in 1906. The work has only developed on an extensive scale in the last few years, and is connected in its origin with the law of 1861 abolishing serfdom, adding to the personal emancipation of that law the liberation of land. One portion of the work has to do with the readjustment and redistribution of lands owned or occupied by peasants, in order to unite the scattered holdings of individuals, or their equivalent, in small farms of a single piece. Some 11,000 persons are directly engaged in this enterprise, which is the most extensive land readjustment ever undertaken.

Another feature concerns itself with provid

ing additional land for peasants, who in general are insufficiently supplied. The latter has been conducted in close collaboration with the peasants' land bank, which not only makes long-time loans to purchasers, but is authorized to purchase landed estates by the issue of bonds, for subdivision and resale to peasants, and has had placed at its disposal large areas of crown land for the same purpose. The disposal of the enormous quantity of land which came into the bank's possession has involved the organization of schemes of home colonization, the moving of / peasants to new sections where land is more abundant, and other measures. In spite of the difficulties of such a large undertaking, the principal part of the land reserve of the bank has already passed into the hands of peasants, especially small farmers most in need of it. A report issued by the Argentine Ministry of Agriculture shows an extensive changing hands of land. Excluding the land which cannot be sold, the sales during the past decade equal more than 50 per cent of all the Argentine territory.

The last Canadian census showed that out of a total of 710,681 farms, 186,988 were under 50 acres in size, 162,537 were between 50 and 100 acres, 228,236 were between 100 and 200 acres, and 132,920 were over 200 acres. The Board of Agriculture has published a detailed classification of agricultural holdings in England and Wales, according to size. About one-third of the agricultural area of the country is farmed in holdings of from 50 to 150 acres, rather more than half in holdings of over 150 acres, and about one-fourth in holdings of over 300 acres. Nearly one-half the total number of holdings are from 1 to 20 acres, but in area they represent only 6 per cent of the whole. From 1895 to 1913 the total cultivated area declined by over a half million acres, largely at the expense of the largest holdings.

Up to the close of 1913, 182,022 acres of land had been acquired under the British Small Holdings Act, and land had been provided in 6 years for 17,000 applicants. This, however, does not begin to meet the demand, for 43,245 individuals and 89 associations have made application in that time for small holdings which would aggregate 723,497 acres. Less than 2 per cent of the applicants desire to purchase holdings. A new small holdings law was passed in Denmark during 1914, which modifies the law in force since 1899. It aims to facilitate by means of government loans the acquisition of small holdings by farm laborers and similar persons in the country districts.

A successful experiment in reclamation has been made in Egypt on an 800-acre tract of waste land so badly impregnated with alkali that it had grown nothing in years. In 1912 it was drained and irrigated at a cost of $50 an acre. In 1913 it was flooded to wash out the alkali and a crop of rice was grown. The past year a considerable proportion was successfully used for cotton growing, producing a good crop. It is stated that there are a million and a half acres of similar waste land awaiting development in the Nile delta.

The National Forward-to-the-Land League has been planning a meeting in New York early in January, 1915, with the support of the Department of Labor, the U. S. Reclamation Service, and other government agencies, as well as pub

lic-spirited men. It aims at settling on the now unutilized land adapted to agriculture the needy from the cities and such desirable immigrants as may come to this country after the war. Several of the States, notably Georgia and California, have set organized effort on foot to attract Belgian settlers. The State-wide organization in Georgia announces that it will provide farm lands practically rent free for two years, and an effort will also be made to furnish transportation and farming equipment.

MOVEMENT OF FARMERS. An analysis of the data collected by the last U. S. Census from nearly 6,000,000 farm operators shows that approximately 52 per cent had occupied their farms less than 5 years, while more than 1,000,000 farmers, or 1% of the entire number, had been in their present location less than 1 year. Only 8.63 per cent of "owners, free," in the United States are reported as having occupied their farms for a year or less, while 52.27 per cent of "share tenants" were in the one-year class, and only 6 per cent of the latter had a tenancy of 10 years or over.

FARM WOMEN. To ascertain the specific needs of farm women for assistance, a letter of inquiry was addressed last year by the U. S. Department of Agriculture to the housewives of 55,000 progressive farmers in all the counties of the United States. No questions were asked, but the women were left to discuss any needs they felt. The replies have now been digested and are being summarized in a series of reports published by the Department, together with references to what the government has done in the various lines. These reports deal with the social, educational, domestic, and economic needs of farm women.

The Minister of Agriculture of France has authorized the directors of the departmental agricultural services to organize farm women's clubs in as many communities as possible, for the dissemination of information in home economics and agriculture. The clubs of each department are to be federated, and these departmental federations combined into a national federation, to be administered by a central committee at the seat of the Ministry of Agriculture. A national union of women's agricultural associations in Prussia was formed in Berlin in February, 1914. The object is the creation of a centre for the work of the provincial unions, especially in relation to the teaching of domestic science, increasing the productivity of the rural domestic industries by organizing the sale of fresh products in towns, the promotion of fruit growing, market gardening, bee and poultry keeping, and the control of immigration from the country.

RADIO-ACTIVITY AND PLANT GROWTH. The effect of radio-active material on plant growth has lately attracted attention and study. Stoklasa and Zdobnicky found that in moderate concentration radio-active emanations favorably influenced the development of grains and legumes, and their total production. Very heavy concentrations, however, checked development and appeared to favor the formation of toxic substances. Similarly, Petit in France found a striking acceleration of growth in rye grass, wheat, and especially corn. In the United States, Dr. H. H. Rusby, of Columbia University College of Pharmacy, reported experiments with the finely powdered residue remaining after the

extraction of radium. These experiments were conducted in greenhouses and fields, on a larger scale than most of the previous experiments. They showed that in the case of most crops the yields were increased by the addition of the radio-active material, the amount differing with different crops. The beneficial effects continued from one crop to another. There was no indication that radium serves as a plant food, for the necessity for fertilizer was but little decreased. Experiments in England with similar material gave good results with cereals, and especially with root crops.

OFFICIAL AND PERSONAL. Hon. Carl Vrooman was appointed Assistant Secretary of Agricul ture to succeed Dr. B. T. Galloway, who retired during the summer to become Director of the New York State College of Agriculture and Experiment Station.

Dr. Moises S. Bertoni, an experienced agronomist and botanist, and director of the agricul tural station at Asunción, Paraguay, has been appointed chief of the Bureau of Agriculture in that country.

A separate Ministry of Agriculture has been provided in the Union of South Africa, the first appointee being Hon. H. C. von Heerden.

The trustees of the estate of the late H. B. Noble, of Douglas, Isle of Man, have decided to devote $100,000 to the fostering of agriculture in that island. It is planned to establish a board of agriculture, additional funds to be contributed by the island.

The legislative assembly in the Bahamas has provided for an agricultural board, which has been appointed by the Governor. Attention is being given to the improvement of breeding stock, and the establishment of a government agricultural loan bank is being advocated.

The Russian budget for 1913 contains an estimated expenditure for agricultural purposes of £16,638,600, an increase of £2,335,500 over 1913. The largest item, £5,300,000, is for land organization and reallotment, and assistance to peasants in districts where this work is in progress. There is an allotment of £1,178,700 for drainage, irrigation, and peat cutting, and the allotments for agricultural education and for horse breeding are largely increased.

The Swedish budget for 1914 carried a total of £592,000 for agriculture, an increase of £22,000, mainly for veterinary education and improved roads.

An association of the chambers of commerce and agriculture in the Republic of Mexico has been provided, the aim being to give uniform direction to the agriculture and commerce of the country.

Interest of the railroads in improving agriculture has extended to Spain, where one road has provided its stations with small agricultural museums, supplied with various kinds of useful information; and demonstration fields have been established near many of the railway stations by the central experiment station service of Madrid, with lectures on the use of fertilizers.

Dr. William Saunders, a notable pioneer in the field of Canadian agricultural investigation, and the originator and for many years director of the system of Canadian Experimental Farms, died September 13. He was born in England in 1836, and came to Canada at an early age. His special field of work was horticulture and economic entomology, and he did notable work in