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in the various navies in 1914, and the displacement tonnage, when submerged, of the largest boat built, building, or definitely proposed.

Nation

Argentina
Austria
Brazil

Chile
Denmark

France
Germany

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Great Britain

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Greece
Italy

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a limited area, and its ports at short distances
from the enemy's possible submarine bases.
Yet five months of war failed to break the
British blockade of the German fleet, or even
lighten it. Not a single German cruiser had
gotten by it in either direction-to prey upon
British commerce or to reach the protection of
German guns and mines. The following British
ships had been sunk by submarine attack:
Formidable (battleship, 15,000 tons, launched
1898), Aboukir, Hogue, Cressy (armored cruis-
ers, 12,000 tons, launched 1899-1900), Hawke
(protected cruiser, 7350 tons, launched 1891),
Pathfinder (light cruiser, 2940 tons, launched Japan
1904), Niger (gunboat, 810 tons, launched Netherlands
Norway
1892), and the Germans claimed that one of Peru
their submarines sank the Bulwark (sister ship
to the Formidable). Not one of these ships was
less than 10 years old, some were more than
20; all except the Pathfinder would have been
condemned and relegated to the sale list in a
very short time had not war broken out. Their
age and consequent decreased value was the rea-
on they were so exposed to attack, by being
nade the supporting line for the destroyers,
scout ships, mine layers, mine sweepers, etc.

Several questions naturally arose. Where was the British main fleet? Up to the time of the German attack on the British coast it was probably north of Scotland, and the greater part was likely to be there at the end of the year. Could not the German submarines or air craft find any part of it? Or if found, did their attacks fail? If they did succeed, why had the facts been concealed by the attacking forces? Where were the German submarines? At the end of the year we had heard of only half a dozen. Were the others sunk, scouring the North Sea in vain, or being held for some future grand coup? Where were the British submarines? What rôle were they playing? Were the German vessels hidden beyond their reach? Until these and some other questions could be answered it was impossible to determine the submarine's value, but if we were to judge it solely by its performance during 1914 we must unhesitatingly pronounce it a disappointment. That it could do more than it had done, its few successes indicated, and during future years it might achieve much that its ardent advocates claimed it would.

SUBMARINE DESIGN

TYPES. Two well-defined types of submarines already had been developed by 1914, and a third was receiving some consideration. These were coast submarines, cruising submarines, and submarine cruisers. The coast submarines were from 250 to 500 tons displacement when submerged. They are or should be fitted with numerous tubes and good speed, but only a fair cruising radius (50 miles submerged, 500 miles on the surface). The cruiser submarine is larger, has higher speed, and a much longer cruising radius. There were no submarine cruisers built up to 1914, though all of the larger cruising boats carried 3-inch guns. The nearest approach to the type were the 5000-ton boat suggested by the Russian officers, and the new boat for the U. S. navy which was probably to have a displacement, when submerged, of at least 1500 tons. The following table shows the number of boats built and building

Portugal
Russia
Spain
Sweden
United States
* Proposed.

The figures in the foregoing table are to be accepted as approximate only. Details of their submarines are jealously guarded secrets in all navies. Great Britain, Germany, and Russia might, and probably did have, under construction submarines larger than are mentioned here.

Since

The

ARMAMENT. All large submarines carried guns of 3-inch calibre or greater, and some carried anti-aircraft guns. It was evident that if they were to make serious use of guns, either for protection or offense, they must be much larger and carry heavier pieces, for it was manifest that a submarine's real enemies or objec tive cannot be injured by the fire of a couple of 3-inch guns. The torpedo of the submarine is likely to take on a character of its own. a submarine must approach quite near its objective before firing its torpedo, the range of the latter is comparatively unimportant. considerable weight assigned to securing long range might well be devoted to increase of explosive charge. Unless this was done the battleships of the near future might be nearly immune to attack, for internal and external armor extending down far enough to cover the whole side to the turn of the bilge was having more than a casual consideration. The very fatal results of the German submarine attacks indicated that the Germans were using torpedoes with large bursting charges or a very violent explosive. If it is thoroughly understood that there is no necessary limit to the size of a submarine's torpedo, the magnitude of the problem of protecting a battleship by nets or underwater armor may be appreciated.

SPEED. The speed of submarines both on the surface and when submerged is, of course, of the utmost importance. It conduces to successful pursuit of the enemy, successful attack, and successful escape. Speed means increased length and depth of hull of the boat and these dimensions are increasing actually and relatively to the beam in all new highspeed boats. A surface speed of 20 knots and a submerged speed of 12 will necessitate a ratio of length to beam of 12 or 13 to 1; and boats in 1914 under consideration or construction were aiming at these speeds.

STEERING. The successful development of the gyro compass added enormously to the safety and efficiency of the submarine. The boat no longer depends upon occasional glimpses from

its periscope for the purpose of determining its direction. The newspaper accounts of the "blind" submarine whose periscope had been de stroyed were interesting fiction so far as concerns boats which are fitted with gyro compasses. The gyroscope was also likely to be used as a stabilizer to control rolling and diving.

PROTECTION AGAINST SUBMARINE ATTACK. The protection of surface vessels against submarine attack consisted in speed, watchfulness, and subdivision. It is evident that these were no longer sufficient. Nor was underwater armor likely to prove wholly satisfactory. It seems probable that the submarine must be met in its own element by destroyers which are also submarines; and that as far as possible submarines must be destroyed in their own base harbors. To what extent air craft can hover over, detect, and destroy submarines or bring about their destruction is not yet determined.

SUBWAYS. See RAPID TRANSIT; TUNNELS. SUDAN, ANGLO-EGYPTIAN. An African country south of Egypt under the joint administration of the British and the Egyptian governments. It has an area of 984,520 square miles, with a population estimated in 1911 at 3,000,000. The capital is Khartum, with 18,235 inhabitants in 1909. Khartum North, on the Blue Nile opposite the capital, had 35,285; Omdurman, the former Mahdist capital, on the White Nile, 42,779. Much of the country is fertile and well adapted to the raising of cotton and food grain; in 1913 the imperial government granted a loan of £E3,000,000 with a view to developing the Sudan as a cotton-growing country. A complete project for the irrigation of a block of land in the Gezira has been prepared, comprehending a dam on the Blue Nile at Makwar, a canal about 70 kilometers in length, and the necessary canalization. The 1913 Nile flood was the lowest recorded during a hundred years, being even lower than that for 1912. Water levels through the Dongola province have been two meters below the average of the last few years, with the result that none of the basin has received any water. A plentiful rainfall in Kordofan has compensated somewhat. Under irrigation by artificial means in 1913 were 130,000 feddans; under natural irrigation by flood, 123,000, and by rain 2,050,000. Progress is being made in the work of increasing and conserving the gum forests of Kordofan. Outbreaks of contagious cattle diseases have been unusually numerous.

The imports of merchandise for the year 1911 were valued at £E2,273,949, and the import of specie £E94,364 public and £E192,925 government. Exports, £E1,376,958; reëxports, £E74,894; reëxports of specie, £E70,416; transit inwards, £E22,723; outwards, £E31,002. For 1912, imports, £E1,967,429; imports of specie, £E45,082 public, and £E248,275 government; exports, £E1,373,119; reëxports, £E92,657; reexports of specie, £E1516; transit inwards, £E22,032; outwards, £E24,416. The budget for 1913 balanced at £E1,547,200, and that for 1914 at £E1,644,000. It has been decided to change the form of the estimate, to leave out figures for the local provincial services, a change made necessary by new local taxation ordinance under which revenue and expenditure must be shown separately for each town and rural district. Railways in operation 1911, about 1500

miles; net profits for the year 1913, £E120,380. The traffic in slaves has been almost entirely suppressed. The smuggling of slaves from Abyssinia and across other frontiers has been greatly diminished, and though cases of kidnapping occur they are always followed up, usually with success.

Lieut. Gen. Sir Reginald Wingate was Governor-General of the Sudan and sirdar of the Egyptian army in 1914.

SUFFRAGETTES. See FEMINISM; WOMAN

SUFFRAGE.

SUGAR. There has been much anxiety over the beet sugar industry in the United States, and a determined effort has been made to save it from the tariff in 1916. The area planted to beets in 1914 was 18 per cent less than in 1913, representing a decrease in all the States except Idaho and Utah. Thirteen sugar refineries were reported to have closed down. Early in the fall, as a result of the European conflict, England made a bid for American sugar, and the price advanced. The beet sugar companies informed the growers that the old rate for beets would be maintained in spite of the contracts for the year at a reduction.

The United States Department of Agriculture in November gave returns from the beet sugar factories showing an area of 486,000 acres of beets, with a probable production of 5,147,000 tons of beets and of 664,000 tons of sugar. Willett and Gray estimated the crop (December 10) at 570,000 tons of sugar, as compared with 655,298 tons in 1913, and 624,064 tons in 1912. The same authorities estimated the Louisiana crop of cane sugar at 175,000 tons, as pared with 261,337 tons in 1913.

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Soon after the war broke out there was great concern for the next year's supply of sugar-beet seed, which comes from Germany. With the aid of the United States government in preparing the way, representatives of the industry went abroad and purchased 70,000 bags of seed, at a cost with all expenses less than American factories have been paying for seed in the past. This enterprise, it is thought, will assure, in 1915, the largest crop of beet sugar ever produced in the United States.

In consequence of the cutting off of the British supply of beet sugar from Germany, Austria, and Belgium, the British government purchased, in the fall, 900,000 tons of raw sugar in Demerara, Java, Mauritius, and elsewhere. This is reported to be by far the largest purchase of sugar ever made, and it is to be sold virtually at cost to the refiners, who agree to sell it at a fixed price based on the cost, plus a fair manufacturer's profit.

The world's sugar crop of 1914, as estimated by Willett and Gray (December 10), was as follows: United States 751,000 tons; Porto Rico 325,000 tons; Hawaii 565,000 tons; Cuba 2,600,000 tons; West Indies and Lesser Antilles 294,500 tons; Mexico 110,000 tons; Demerara 100,000 tons; Brazil 200,000; Argentina 200,000; Peru 145,000; Surinam and Venezuela 16,500; Central America, 22,000; British India 2,400,000; Java 1,280,000; Formosa 180,000; Philippine Islands 243,000; Australia and Fiji Islands 342,000; Mauritius 265,000; other African countries 230,000; Spain 10,000; and the beet sugar crop of Europe 5,700,000 tons. This is a total of 15,979,000 short tons of cane and beet sugar, an estimated decrease in the world's

production of 2,634,792 tons. The war has unsettled the export market for German beet sugar, its export to certain neutral countries having been prohibited, and the government has advised the feeding of sugar beets to live stock. The United States Department of Agriculture published during the year the statistics of sugar in the United States and its insular possessions from 1881 to 1912 (United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin 66). This showed a great increase in sugar consumption in the period covered-from 2,500,000,000 pounds in 1881-85 to 7,000,000,000 pounds in 1901-10, while the per capita consumption nearly doubled, averaging 86.85 pounds in 1914. Of the domestic sugar consumption, continental United States supplied, in 1914, 20.6 per cent, the insular possessions 21.9 per cent, and Cuba 57.5 per The United States, with its insular possessions, now ranks among the first four of the sugar producing countries of the world.

cent.

SULLIVAN, JAMES EDWARD. An American athlete, official, and publisher, died Sept. 16, 1914. He was born in 1862 in New York City, and was educated in the public schools of that city. From 1878 to 1889 he was connected with the publishing house of Frank Leslie. He founded the Athletic News, one of the first ath

States, Louisiana, Texas, and Wyoming, the chief production being from Louisiana. The total quantity of sulphur imported to the United States in 1913 was 22,605 long tons, valued at $448,564, and there were exported 89,221 long tons, valued at $1,599,761. For sulphur as a plant food see HORTICULTURE.

SUN YAT-SEN. See CHINA, History. SURGERY. The cutting or wounding of the vagus nerve has generally been regarded as a grave accident when occurring during a surgical operation, but Exner and Schwarzmann have severed the nerve in a number of cases for the relief of gastric crises in locomotor ataxia. They report many experiences which show, apparently, that the vagus forms a portion of the reflex arc which is involved in the production of these pains, and by severing the nerve this arc is interrupted and the pain relieved. On this assumption 14 cases have been operated upon with the result that 7 of the patients were completely relieved from their crises, 2 cases improved, and 2 were negative. None of the patients appeared to be injured by the operation. In another series of 6 cases, in which the operation was performed by other surgeons, 3 cases were cured, 1 case not benefited, and 1 made worse. Another operation ic papers in the United States devoted to with the same object in view, which has been tracking and field athletics, and was also for noted in previous issues in the YEAR BOOK, conseveral years owner and editor of the New York sists in the resection of the posterior spinal Sporting Times. He was the publisher of nerve roots. The percentage of cures under both Spalding's Athletic Library and the editor of methods is about the same, namely, 50 per cent, Spalding's Official Athletic Almanac. He started but vagotomy is the simpler operation. Exner his career as an athlete in 1877, when he entered and Schwarzmann resect about 1 cm. from the a walking contest in New York City; this was vagus on each side. followed by a long series of victories in walking and running contests. He ceased active competition in sports in 1884, and several years later was one of the organizers of the American Athletic Union, which grew to be the most important athletic organization in the United States. In 1893 he was appointed chairman of the Amateur Athletic Union Committee, which supervised the World's Fair meet at Chicago. When the Olympic games revival was held in Paris in 1900 he was appointed by President McKinley assistant American director, and at the Olympic games of 1904 at St. Louis he was chief of the department of physical culture. He was special commissioner at the Olympic games in Greece in 1906, and in England in 1908. For the help he rendered to the Greek committee at Athens in 1906 he was decorated by King George I with a golden cross of the Royal Order of the Saviour. At the Jamestown Exposition of 1907 he was an honorary director, and he was American commissioner at the Olympic games in 1912. He was a member of the New York City board of education, for many years was prominent in the organization and conduct of games in the city schools, and at the time of his death he was the foremost man in amateur sports in the United States.

SULPHUR. The production of sulphur in the United States in 1913 was 311,590 long tons, valued at $5,479,849, as compared with 303,472 long tons, valued at $5,256,422 in 1912. The production of Sicilian sulphur amounted, for the year ending July 31, 1913, to 346,213 long tons. Thus the United States is rapidly gaining on Sicily, which, at the present time, is the leading sulphur-producing country in the world. Sulphur, in 1913, was produced in three

Spinal surgery, especially that type connected with tuberculosis of the spine, shows a constant improvement in results. During the past year or two efforts have been made to shorten the period of wearing braces and other orthopedic apparatus by the implantation of bone splints (Albeer's operation). It is to be noted that the diseased area itself is not touched, the operation consisting in the formation of an artificial groove in the spinous processes of the vertebræ and the insertion therein of a thin stick of bone taken from the tibia. The transplant is about five inches long, and is sutured into position by strong catgut and silkwormgut. The operation is more suitable for adults than for children, but in the latter it is claimed that the period of treatment is shortened several months to a year, when this operation is successful. There is always the chance, however, that the transplanted bone may not live or may suppurate.

The controlling of hemorrhage in large organs, such as the liver, brain, kidneys, etc., has always been a difficult matter, and various experiments have been made to improve surgical technic in this direction. Bowman advocates the use of flaps of adjacent tissue, whether muscle, fascia, or omentum, which flaps may be used with a pedicle or may be detached entirely from their natural situation. It is not known whether the undoubted efficacy of such flaps is due to chemical or mechanical action, or to both. The older methods of controlling hemorrhage by tampons, ligatures, and sutures were unsatisfactory because of the degeneration, and sometimes necrosis, which they produced in the neighboring tissues. Experimental wounds were made by Waljoschke and Lebedew on the kidneys,

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