Having offered a sacrifice to the gods, he advanced to meet him, and drew up his army on a spot of ground near the city of Issus, which was divided by the river Pinarus, and bounded by the mountains on one side, and by the sea on the other.* Here Darius, not being able to extend his front beyond that of the Macedonians, could only draw up his army in so many lines, one behind the other. The Macedonians soon put the first line to flight, and that recoiling upon the second, and the second on the third, and so on throughout the whole host, an indescribable confusion followed. The issue of the battle was speedily determined. Darius, who fought in the first line, escaped in the tumult with much difficulty, and fled on horseback through the pass by which he came. There are two passes of the name of Amanus, the Upper and the Lower. It appears to have been by the former that Darius advanced and retreated. The camp of Darius, on his flight, lay, as will be seen, at Sochos, the modern Dubesak, in the great plain on the river Aswad. From this to the foot of the Upper pass of Amanus, is twenty geographical miles direct north. From this to the supposed scene of the action on the Pinarus, is a distance of ten geographical miles direct. The Upper pass of Amanus leads from Killis to Ayasse. Connected with the history of this engagement, therefore, there are four passes: 1. That from Cilicia to Tarsus; 2. The maritime pass, by which Cyrus came, etc.; 3. The Lower pass of Amanus, which Darius avoided; and, 4. The Upper pass of Amanus, by which he advanced and retreated. Alexander was prevented from immediately following Darius, by the prowess of the Greek mercenaries. This powerful body charged the Macedonian phalanx, killed Ptolemy the son of Seleucus, with 120 officers of distinction, besides a great many private men; and, though attacked in flank by Alexander in person, maintained their ground till they were reduced from 20,000 to 8,000. They retired then in good order over the mountains, towards Tripoli in Syria, where, finding the transports that had conveyed them from Lesbos lying on the shore, they fitted out a number, and sailed to Cyprus. As soon as Alexander had repulsed the Greek mercenaries, he hastened after Darius. He pursued in vain; and growing weary, he returned to the camp at midnight, and refreshed himself in the baths prepared for Darius, whose tent was taken, with his mother, wife, and children, and a vast booty, and reserved for the conqueror, during the plunder of the enemy's camp. According to Arrian, the Persians lost 110,000 men in this battle; ancient authors, however, differ very much on this subject; and it is difficult to determine which is correct. The loss of life was doubtless great, and that on both sides, though Quintus Curtius relates that not more than 450 of the Macedonians were slain. * Arrian says that Alexander, as soon as he heard of the approach of Darius, returned from Myriandrus, and seized upon the straits he was obliged to pass, the evening before the battle. These straits are a narrow border of low lands at the foot of high steep cliffs, and called the Syrian gates, at the river Kersus, the modern Mahersy, eight miles south of Alexandria. They answer to the second maritime pass of the text. The next day, Alexander, after visiting the wounded, caused the dead to be buried in great pomp, in the presence of the whole army, which was drawn up in battle array. He treated the persons of distinction in the same manner, and permitted the mother of Darius to bury as many as she pleased according to the ceremonies used in Persia. The conqueror treated his royal captives with great tenderness and humanity. Plutarch says, "that they were in Alexander's camp, not as in that of an enemy, but as in an holy temple, designed for the asylum of virtue; they all living so retired, that they were not seen by any one, none daring to approach their pavilion but such as were appointed to attend them." From a letter which Alexander wrote to Parmenio, we find that the consort of Darius, and her two daughters, being princesses possessing great beauty, he resolved never to see them after his first visit, which was the day after the battle. Alexander had the one great object of the Persian empire in view, and he avoided the debasing influence of pleasure, lest he should lose the prize. It would be well for the Christian warrior to act thus from nobler motives. With the kingdom of heaven in view, he should resolutely avoid every pleasure of earth that would deprive him of his crown. His path is surrounded by roses that have thorns, which would pierce his inmost soul; by pleasures that would rob him of eternal happiness. The world cries: "I am thine end; Felicity my name; The best of wishes, pleasures, riches, fame, BEAUMONT. Beware of these snares of the world; for Scripture declares," the friendship of the world is enmity with God," James iv. 4. The principal treasures of Darius had been deposited at Damascus. Alexander, shortly after the battle, detached Parmenio thither with the Thessalian horse, to take possession of them. They were betrayed into Parmenio's hands by the governor, who, in return for his treachery, was killed by one of his own men, and his head carried to Darius. The treasures were immense, sufficient, says Plutarch, to load 7,000 camels. Thirty thousand prisoners were also taken at the same time, among whom were many of great distinction: there was scarcely a noble family in Persia who did not partake in this calamity. In Darius we behold the mutability of earthly grandeur. Whilst Alexander was seizing his riches, he who, but a few hours before, was at the head of so mighty an army, and who came into the field with all the pride of a conqueror, was fleeing for his life. He rode swiftly the whole night, accompanied only by a few attendants. In two or three days, he arrived at Sochos, where he assembled the remains of his army, which amounted only to 4000 men, including OF THE NIVERS ア Persians and mercenaries. From hence he hastened to Thapsacus, in order to have the Euphrates between him and Alexander. In the mean time, Alexander advanced into Syria, most of the cities of which surrendered at his approach. Being arrived at Marathon, he| received a letter from Darius, who was now at Babylon, complaining of his aggressions, offering to ransom his wife, mother, and children, and to treat about peace. The letter was written, notwithstanding the fall of Darius, in the usual haughty style of the kings of the east. Alexander answered him in the same spirit, concluding with this sentence: "When you write next to me, remember that you write to the king of Asia. Treat me no more as your equal, but as lord of all you possess. If you dispute my title, prepare to do so in another general engagement; but attempt not to flee, for wherever you go, I am determined to pursue you." Thus was he like a ravenous bird seeking its prey. Alexander marched from Marathon into Phenicia, where the citizens of Byblos opened their gates to him; and their example was followed by others as he advanced into the country. The Sidonians, who had, as stated in the life of Ochus, been cruelly treated by that prince, retaining an abhorrence of the Persians, received Alexander with great joy. This people were among the first in the country who submitted to him, and they did so in opposition to their king, who declared in favour of Darius. Alexander deposed him, and permitted Hephæstion to elect whomsoever of the Sidonians he should judge worthy of so exalted a station. Abdalonymus, descended remotely from the royal line, was taken from a low station in life to wear the diadem, in compliance with this permission. Alexander commanded the newly-elected prince to be sent for, and after surveying him attentively, spoke to this effect: 66 Thy air and mien do not contradict what is related of thy extraction; but I should be glad to know with what frame of mind thou didst bear 66 thy poverty?" "Would to the gods," he replied, that I may bear this crown with equal fortitude. These hands have procured me all I desired; and whilst I possessed nothing, I wanted nothing." Socrates has well observed, that he is the richest man who is contented with the least; for contentment is the riches of nature. The inspired precept is far more emphatic: "Having food and raiment let us be therewith content," 1 Tim. vi. 8. While Alexander was in Phenicia, some of the Persian generals who had escaped the slaughter at Issus, drawing together the remains of the scattered army, attempted, with the aid of the Cappadocians and Paphlagonians, to recover Lydia; but they were defeated in several engagements by Antigonus, whom Alexander had appointed governor of that province. At the same time, the Macedonian fleet sailing from Greece came up with and destroyed the fleet commanded by Aristomenes, whom Darius had sent to recover the cities on the Hellespont. All Syria and Phenicia were now subdued by Alexander, insular Tyre excepted, to which he next laid siege. It has been seen in former pages,* that Nebu See the History of the Assyrians, and the present history, page 59. chadnezzar, according to the voice of prophecy, had laid ancient Tyre in the dust, and that the Tyrians continued without a king for seventy years, to which period the duration of their subjection was limited by prophecy, Isa. xxiii. 15—17; that is, to the termination of the Babylonian monarchy, when the Tyrians, with some other remote nations, were restored to comparative independence by the Persians. But Tyre, after she had recovered her losses and repaired her ruins, forgot her former state of humiliation, and the guilt which had reduced her to it, unmindful of the finger of prophecy which pointed to her future ruin. Yes, while Ezekiel speaks primarily of the destruction of continental Tyre by Nebuchadnezzar, he, by a transition not unusual in Scripture, glances at the subsequent destruction of the insular Tyre by Alexander, near 400 years after the first. Its doom was also foretold by the prophets Isaiah and Zechariah. "Pass through thy land as a river, O daughter of Tarshish: There is no more strength. He stretched out his hand over the sea, The Lord hath given a commandment against the merchant city, To destroy the strong holds thereof. And he said, Thou shalt no more rejoice, O thou oppressed virgin, daughter of Zidon: There also shalt thou have no rest."-Isa. xxiii. 10-12. "And Hamath also shall border thereby; Tyrus, and Zidon, though it be very wise. Behold, the Lord will cast her out, Gaza also shall see it, and be very sorrowful, And Ashkelon shall not be inhabited."-Zech. ix. 2—5. of the Tyrians after their redemption from The prophet powerfully describes the conduct obscurity, which is the cause of their second humiliation. "After the end of seventy years shall Tyre sing as an harlot. And it shall come to pass after the end of seventy years, And shall commit fornication with all the kingdoms of the world Upon the face of the earth."-Isa. xxiii. 15—17. Thus, after her season of obscurity, seventy years, the prophet foresaw that Tyre would again endeavour to appear with the air of a harlot; that she would promote her commerce by fraud and deceit; that she would visit every part of the world to collect the most rare and delicate productions of every country, to inspire the various nations of the universe with a love and admiration for superfluities and splendour; and that she would use every effort to renew her ancient treaties, and to recover the confidence of her former correspondents, with her trade and credit. And such had been the policy of the an oath of fidelity to Darius, they would never acknowledge any other sovereign as long as he lived. Alexander now turned aside from Gaza, with vengeance in his heart, to punish them for such rare conduct, which ought to have been his admiration. In this exigency, Jaddua the high priest, who governed under the Persians, relying on the protection of the Almighty, gave orders that public prayers should be made to implore his assistance, and offered sacrifices. No nations or individuals have ever truly sought the protection of Heaven in vain. The night after, we are told, Jaddua was commanded in a vision to cause flowers to be scattered up and down the city, to set open all with all the priests dressed also in their vestments, to meet Alexander; and not to fear any evil from the king, inasmuch as he would protect them. Accordingly, this august procession, the very day after, marched out of the city to an eminence called Sapha, which commanded a view of the city and temple, and there waited the arrival of Alexander. Tyrians. Under the Persians, the people of Tyre recovered much of their former wealth and importance. As into one common storehouse they collected the amber of Prussia, the tin of Britain, the linen of Egypt, the spices of Arabia, the slaves of Caucasus, and the horses of Scythia. The king of Tyre was present at the council of war which Xerxes, the Persian monarch, held concerning the Greeks, and his seat was second only from the king, which shows to what importance Tyre had again risen in the scale of nations. But her second overthrow was at hand. Alexander took Tyre, after a siege of seven months, burned it, slew 8000 of the Tyrians, crucified 2000 more, and sold 30,000 captives, in order to strike terror into the neigh-the gates, and to go clothed in his pontifical robes, bouring states by the severity. His enlarged views of commercial policy, however, induced him to re-people Tyre from the adjacent countries, thus undesignedly fulfilling prophecy. A brighter era was in the distance for Tyre. A day was coming when she should no longer be a scandal and a stumbling block to the nations around,-when her inhabitants should embrace Christianity. (See Psa. xlv. 12; lxxii. 10; Isa. xxiii. 18.) And thus it was. Many of the people of Tyre in the end embraced the Jewish religion, and that city was one of the first that received the faith of Christ. He had, while on earth, himself visited the coasts of Tyre and Sidon, and miraculously healed the woman of Canaan's daughter. Paul found there some faithful disciples in his journey to Jerusalem; and in the persecution under Dioclesian, there were many sincere believers at Tyre, who counted not their own lives dear unto them. But Tyre still seems to have been devoted to destruction; and successive persecutions have caused it literally to become, as the prophet Ezekiel prophesied it should become, "A place for the spreading of nets in the midst of the sea."-Ezek. xxvi. 5. During the siege of Tyre, Darius wrote again to Alexander, offering to cede to him all the provinces west of the Euphrates, to give him his daughter in marriage, as a friend and ally, and 10,000 talents for the ransom of his family. In order to gain his consent to these terms, Darius pointed out to him the inconstancy of fortune, and described in pompous terms the numberless troops which were still at his command. When these proposals were communicated to his privy council, Parmenio said, "I would accept them, were I Alexander." "And I too," replied he, were I Parmenio." But Alexander returned the following answer: "That he wanted no money from Darius, nor would accept part of the country, since he was lord of the whole; that if he chose he could marry the daughter of Darius, even without his consent; and that he required Darius to come to him, if he wished to make Alexander his friend." 66 Despairing of peace with such a haughty foe, Darius continued his preparations for war, while Alexander proceeded on his systematic plan of conquest. The people of Jerusalem had refused him supplies during the siege of Tyre, and rejected his friendship; declaring, that as they had taken The conqueror came. As he approached, struck with awful respect, he advanced alone to meet the high priest, saluted him first, and adored the sacred name of Jehovah written on the front of his mitre, to the great surprise and disappointment of the Phenicians and Chaldeans, who expected his orders to destroy the Jewish priests and plunder the city. Alexander recognized in Jaddua the person whom he had seen in the vision at Dios. He explained this to his followers; adding, that having undertaken the expedition by a Divine mission, he should conquer Darius, overthrow the Persian empire, and succeed in all his designs. After this explanation, he embraced the high priest and his brethren ; then walking in the midst of them, he arrived at Jerusalem, where he offered sacrifices to God in the temple, according to the high priest's directions. While at Jerusalem, the high priest showed Alexander the passages in the prophecy of Daniel relating to himself, and which now demand our attention. The prophecies which relate to the Macedo-Grecian empire are exceedingly remarkable; and the reader, in tracing them in the dreams and visions, cannot fail to observe, that they become progressively more definite, till at last the "king of Grecia," Alexander, is distinctly mentioned. We shall notice them in the order they were revealed. The first dream, B. c. 569.-This was of a compound image of gold, silver, brass, and iron, denoting four successive kingdoms, Dan. ii. 31-45. Now in ancient coins and medals it is usual to see cities and nations represented by human figures, male or female. A vast image of a human figure was therefore a fit emblem of sovereign power and dominion, while the materials of which it was composed significantly typified the character of the various empires, the succession of which was foreshown by the vision, and which has been so well explained by the prophet himself, and with the illustration derived from his own future visions, that little or no cavil has taken place on essential points, except in that portion yet unfulfilled. The head of "fine gold," as we have seen in the article Nebuchadnezzar, represented the Babylonian empire. The other parts downward represented the great empires which should successively arise upon its ruins. The breast and arms of silver denoted the Medo-Persian kingdom. And it is remarkable that their arms and shields were frequently ornamented or cased with silver, whence Alexander instituted that remarkable body of veteran infantry called Argyraspides, from their "silver shields;" after the conquest of the Persians, adopting the manners of the conquered nations. This empire lasted from B. c. 536 to the battle of Arbela, B. C. 331. The "belly and thighs of brass" (see Dan. ii. 32) denoted the MacedoGrecian kingdoms of Alexander and his successors. And the Greeks usually wore brazen armour, whence the Egyptian oracle described them on one occasion as "brazen men rising out of the sea." This empire lasted 163 years to the conquest of the first kingdom, Macedonia, B. C. 168, and 300 years to the conquest of the last, Egypt, B. c. 30; when "the legs of iron," and the "feet, part of iron and part of clay," which refers to the Roman power, trampled over them by conquest. his strength, after the succession of the Persian power under Cyrus; it had two horns, with which it was pushing or butting, "westward, and northward, and southward," or subduing Lydia, Babylonia, and Egypt with their dependencies, and doing according to his will, and becoming great, Dan. viii. 3, 4. The ram was the armorial ensign of the Persian empire, and rams' heads, with unequal horns, one higher than the other, are still to be seen on the ruined pillars of Persepolis. The lower horn denoted the Median power; the higher, which "came up last," the Persian. While the prophet was meditating on the ram, a he goat from the west, with a notable horn between his eyes, (Alexander the Great,) who touched not the ground, (for swiftness,) traversed the whole earth, (or the Persian empire,) and ran at the ram (Darius Codomannus) in the fury of his power; and was "moved with choler against him, and smote the ram, and brake his two horns, -and cast him down to the ground, and stamped upon him and there was none that could deliver the ram out of his hand. Therefore the he goat waxed very great: and when he was strong, the great horn was broken; and for it came up four notable ones [the four kingdoms of The first vision, B. c. 558.-This vision corre- Macedo-Greece, Thrace, Syria, and Egypt] tosponds to the dream, portraying the same things ward the four winds of heaven," ver. 4-8. The under living emblems. The four kingdoms in interpretation of this vision is given by the anit are represented by four ferocious wild beasts gel who showed it to the prophet. "The ram rising out of the sea, agitated by the four winds which thou sawest having two horns are the striving for the mastery. The first beast resem- kings [or kingdoms] of Media and Persia. And bled a lion with eagle's wings, to denote the the rough goat is the king [or kingdom] of fierceness and rapidity of Nebuchadnezzar, the Grecia: and the great horn that is between his founder of the Babylonian empire, which accords eyes is the first king [Alexander.] Now that with the description of that monarch by the pro- being broken, whereas four stood up for it, four phets Jeremiah and Ezekiel. See Jer. iv. 7; xlviii. kingdoms shall stand up out of the nation, but not 40; and Ezek. xvii. 3. At the time of this vision, in his power," ver. 20-22. Ancient authors state its "wings were plucked, and it was lifted up from that the figure of a goat was represented on the the earth, and made stand upon the feet as a royal standard of the Macedonian kings; and that man ;" and it also had "a man's heart," and not the origin of this device commenced with Carathe boldness of the lion; that is, its career was nus, the first of those kings. The reason is thus checked, and its stability weakened by the vic- assigned. Caranus, they say, was a native of tories of Cyrus, Dan. vii. 4. The second beast re- Argos, and a remote descendant of the renowned sembled a bear, raised on one side, with three ribs Hercules. Caranus left his native city, accomin its teeth, aptly expressing the Medo-Persian panied by a considerable body of Greeks, in empire; Darius the Mede being of a sluggish search of a foreign settlement. Consulting the disposition, until stimulated to conquest by Cy-oracle where he should establish his colony, rus, his nephew, who reduced Lydia, Babylonia, | and Egypt under his dominion, three kingdoms answering to the three ribs, ver. 5. The third beast resembled a leopard in its nature and motions, with two pair of wings to express rapidity, which aptly denoted the founder of the Macedonian empire. This beast had also four heads, which shadowed forth the four kingdoms of the Greeks-Macedon, Thrace, Syria, and Egyptinto which his empire was divided after the death of Alexander, ver. 6. The fourth beast, which represented the Roman power, was the most terrible of all, exceedingly strong, with great iron teeth, with which it devoured and brake in pieces the others, and trampled upon the residue, etc. ver. 7, 8. The second vision, B. C. 556.-At the date of this vision, the Babylonian empire was fallen rapidly into decay; hence it describes more particularly the succession of the second, third, and fourth empires. On the banks of the river Ulai, Daniel saw a ram standing, or established in he was answered that he should be guided in his measures by the direction of the goats. He pursued his course into the country since known by the name of Macedonia, and particularly the small principality of Æmathia, then governed by a prince called Midas, and drew near to its capital, Edessa. The sky being suddenly overcast, and a great storm coming on, Caranus observed a herd of goats running for shelter to the city. Recollecting the response of the oracle, he commanded his men to follow them closely, and entering the city by surprise, he possessed himself of it, and afterwards of the kingdom. In gratitude to his conductors, the goats, he changed the name of the place to Egea, or "the city of goats," called his people Ægeates, and made use of a goat in his standard, in order to perpetuate the memory of this event. As the ram, therefore, was the symbol of the Medo-Persian empire, so that of a goat was symbolical of Alexander the Great. In this vision, the Roman power, which was to triumph over these empires, 66 is represented under the figure of a king of fierce countenance," which will claim more ample notice hereafter. and he soon passed on to obtain this consummation of his wishes. Before he left Jerusalem, he assembled the Jews, and bade them ask any favour they pleased. They requested to be allowed to live according to the law of their fathers, as well as the Jews resident in Babylonia and Media; and to be exempt every seventh year from their usual tribute, explaining, that they were forbidden by their laws to sow in that year, and consequently could reap no harvest. Alexander granted these requests, and promised all who were willing to serve under his standard, that they should follow their own mode of worship, and obey their own customs, which act of policy gained an augmentation to his forces from that people. The fourth vision, B. C. 534.—In the revelation of this vision, after Daniel had been recovered from a trance into which he had fallen, by the touch of the hand of the angel, the plain "Scripture of truth" is unfolded. That which relates to the Persians and Alexander reads thus: "And now will I show thee the truth. Behold, there shall stand up yet three kings in Persia, [after him from whom the vision commenced, Darius Nothus; namely, Artaxerxes Mnemon, Ochus, and Darius Codomannus ;] and the fourth [Darius Codomannus] shall be far richer than they all: and by his strength through his riches he shall stir up Alexander had no sooner left Jerusalem than all against the realm of Grecia, [which, as we he was waited upon by a deputation of Samarihave seen, he did do.] And a mighty king [Alex- tans, who solicited him to visit their temple, which ander] shall stand up, that shall rule with great he declined, stating that he was compelled to dominion, and do according to his will. And when hasten onward to the conquest of Egypt. They he shall stand up, [in his strength,] his kingdom | then requested exemption from paying the seshall be broken, and shall be divided toward the venth year tribute, which had been granted the four winds of heaven; and not to his posterity, Jews; but receiving an ambiguous answer to nor according to his dominion which he ruled: the question whether they were Jews, Alexander for his kingdom shall be plucked up, even for suspended the matter till his return, and conothers beside those," [namely, for his four gene- tinued his march towards Gaza. rals,] Dan. xi. 2—4. From these prophecies, the reader will perceive that the Almighty presides over all events which happen in the world, and rules with absolute sway over man, cities, and empires; while he conceals the operations of his wisdom, and the wonders of his providence, beneath the veil of natural causes and ordinary events. In all that profane history exhibits to us, whether sieges, or the capture of cities, battles won or lost, empires established or overthrown, God is not described as having any concern in these things, and some would suppose that man is abandoned to work according to his own will and pleasure. But to prevent our falling into such a temptation, so repugnant to religion and reason itself, the Most High sometimes condescends to discover to our wondering eyes the secret springs of his providence, by causing his prophets to foretell, ages before the event, what shall befall the different nations of the earth. He reveals here to the "man greatly beloved," the order, the succession, and the different characteristics of the four great empires to which he has determined to subject the different nations of the universe; namely, that of the Babylonians, of the Persians and Medes, of the Greeks, and of the Romans. These, and other prophecies, in which God explains himself so clearly, should be considered as very precious, and serve as so many keys to open to our understanding the secret methods by which he governs the world. These bright rays of light should enable a rational and religious man to see and acknowledge the Divine hand in the varied events of profane history. Strains should follow the review of this On his arrival at Gaza, Alexander found it defended by a strong garrison under the command of Betis, one of the eunuchs of Darius; who being a man of great experience in military affairs, and faithful to his sovereign, resolved to hold out against Alexander to the last extremity. As this was the only inlet or pass into Egypt, it was necessary for him to take it, and therefore he was obliged to besiege it. But although every art of war was resorted to, and great bravery was displayed by his warriors, two months elapsed before its reduction. Exasperated at this impediment in his march, and his receiving two wounds, on taking it, he destroyed ten thousand men, and sold all the rest, with their wives and children. He treated the governor, who was taken prisoner, in the last assault, with unwonted barbarity. When brought before him, covered with honourable wounds, instead of using him kindly, as his valour and fidelity merited, he ordered a hole to be made through his heels, when a cord being put through them, and tied to a chariot, he caused him to be dragged round the city till he expired. These were lamentable actions, and denote that the sentiments and conduct of Alexander began to change with his prosperity. Ancient historians relate, that the conduct of Alexander towards Betis sprung from a desire of imitating the ferocity of Achilles, in dragging the dead body of Hector thrice round the walls of Troy. This is one of the mischiefs of a warlike education: it disposes the mind to delight in the recital of deeds of carnage, and no poem is more calculated to produce such fiendish feelings than the Iliad of Homer. Alexander excelled even his prototype Achilles in cruelty. Achilles was prompted by the passion of revenge for the death of his much loved Patroclus, whom Hector had slain, and over whom he mourned in the tenderest accents. The conduct of Alexander towards his fallen foe Betis was not attended with extenuating circumstances. He had no other motive to satiate his inhuman rage but the brave defence which Betis made of the city entrusted to H |