are superfluous; and that in case I have behaved with clemency towards his family, it was for my own sake, and not for his; to gratify my own inclination, and not to please him. To insult the unhappy is a thing to me unknown. I do not attack either prisoners or women, and turn my rage only against such as are armed for the fight. If Darius were sincere in his demand for peace, I then would debate on what was to be done; but since he still continues, by letters and by money, to spirit up my soldiers to betray me, and my friends to murder me, I therefore am determined to pursue him with the utmost vigour; and that not as an enemy, but an assassin. It indeed becomes him to offer to yield up to me what I already possess ! Would he be satisfied with ranking second to me, without pretending to be my equal, I might possibly then hear him. Tell him that the world will not permit two suns nor two sovereigns. Let him therefore either choose to surrender to-day, or meet me to-morrow; and not to flatter himself with the hopes of better success than he has had hitherto."

fully confident of obtaining the empire of the east on the morrow, and that he should reign without a rival.

The morrow came, and both sides prepared for battle. Both armies were drawn up in the same order, the infantry in the centre, and the cavalry on the wings. The front of the Persian army was covered with two hundred chariots, armed with scythes, and twenty-five elephants. Besides his guards, which were the flower of his army, Darius had posted the Grecian infantry near his person, believing this body alone capable of opposing the Macedonian phalanx. As his army spread over a larger space of ground than that of the enemy, he intended to surround, and to charge them at the same time, both in front and flank. Alexander anticipated this, and gave directions accordingly. He had posted, in the front of his first line, the greatest part of his bowmen, slingers, and javelin men, in order that they might counteract the effect of the chariots, by discharging their missiles at the horses, to frighten them. Those who led the wings were ordered to extend them as widely as possible, but in such a manner as not to weaken the main body. Parmenio commanded the left wing, and Alexander the right. The two armies soon joined issue. The chariots failed in the effect intended, and the Persian cavalry in the left wing were repulsed, upon which Darius set his whole army in motion, in order to overwhelm the Macedonians. Upon seeing this, Alexander

The ambassadors of Darius returned, and informed him that he must now prepare for battle. Accordingly, he pitched his camp near a village called Gaugamela,* and the river Bumellus, the modern Hazir Su, in a plain at a considerable distance from Arbela, where he had before levelled the ground, that his cavalry and chariots might move and act with more ease. At the same time he had prepared caltrops† to annoy the enemy's horse.

Alexander hearing that Darius was so near, continued four days in his camp to rest the army. During this time, he was engaged in surrounding it with deep trenches and palisades, being determined to leave his baggage there, and such of his troops as were unable to join in the conflict. On the fifth morning, he set out about the second watch, designing to engage the enemy at break of day. Arriving at some mountains from whence he could descry the enemy's army, he halted; and having assembled his officers, he debated whether he should attack them immediately, or encamp in that place. The latter opinion being adopted, he encamped there in the same order in which the army had marched, and, after having consulted with his soothsayer, as was his usual

wont on the eve of a battle, he retired to repose,

When the strife was at the height, and fury pervaded every breast, Aristander, the soothsayer, clothed in his white robes, and holding a branch of laurel in his hand, advanced among the troops, crying that he saw an eagle (a sure omen of victory) hovering over the head of Alexander, to which pretended bird he pointed with his finger. The soldiers relying upon his word, and imagining that they also saw the eagle, renewed the attack with greater resolution than ever. The battle was obstinate and bloody; but the Macedonians prevailed. Alexander having wounded the equerry of Darius with a javelin, the Persians, as well as the Macedonians, imagined that the king was killed; upon which the former were seized with the greatest consternation. The relations of Darius, who were at his left hand, fled away with the guards; but those who were at his right surrounded him, in order to rescue him from death. Historians relate, that he drew his scimitar, and reflected whether he ought not to lay violent hands upon himself, rather than flee in an i ignominious manner; but the love of life prevailed, and he fled to Arbela, where he arrived the same night.

After Darius had passed the Lycus, some of his attendants advised him to break down the

bridge, in order to stop the pursuit of the enemy; but he, reflecting how many of his own men were hastening to pass over, generously replied, that he had rather leave an open road to a pur

These were instruments composed of spikes, several of which were anciently laid in the field through which the cavalry was to march, in order that they might pierce the feet of the horses.

When he reached Arbela, he informed those who had escaped with him, that he designed to leave all for the present to Alexander, and flee into Media, from whence, and from the rest of the

northern provinces, he could draw together new forces, to try once more his fortune in battle. Historians differ as to the number of the Persians slain on this fatal day. Curtius says 40,000; Arrian, 30,000; and Diodorus, 90,000. The first of these authorities states that the Macedonians lost only 300 men, while Arrian does not allow a third of that number; but this cannot be true if the battle was so obstinate, and the Persian army so numerous as they make it, (600,000, 700,000, or 800,000 men,) they could not have bought the empire thus cheaply. There is, doubtless, on the one side exaggeration, and on the other extenuation, with reference to the numbers stated. The battle was fought on the first of October, B.C. 331.

Alexander, after offering magnificent sacrifices to the gods, for the victory, and rewarding those who had signalized themselves in the battle, pursued Darius as far as Arbela; but before his arrival there, the fallen monarch had fled over the mountains of Armenia, attended by some of his relatives, and a small body of guards called Melophori, because each of them wore a golden apple on the top of his spear. In Armenia, he was joined by 2000 Greek mercenaries who had escaped the slaughter.

Alexander took the city of Arbela, where he seized on immense sums of money, with all the rich furniture and equipage of Darius, and then returned to his camp.

The conqueror rested but a few days. Some cities yet remained untaken, and some provinces unsubdued, and he was uneasy till they were in his possession. He first proceeded to Babylon. Mazæus was governor of that city and province, and he had, after the late battle, retired thither, with the remains of the body he commanded. He was almost powerless; upon Alexander's arrival, therefore, he delivered the city, himself, and his children, into the conqueror's hands. His example was followed by Bagaphanes, governor of the fortress, wherein all the treasures of Darius were deposited; and Alexander entered the city at the head of his whole army, as though he had been marching against the enemy, and received the riches of Babylon.

During his stay in Babylon, Alexander held many conferences with the magi, and acting upon their advice, he gave directions for rebuilding the temples which Xerxes had demolished; and, among others, that of Belus. He frequently conversed, also, with the Chaldeans, who were famous for their knowledge in astronomy, and who presented him with astronomical observations, taken by their predecessors during the space of 1903 years, which were sent by Callisthenes, who accompanied Alexander, to Aristotle. Before he departed, he gave the government of the province to Mazæus, and the command of the forces he left there to Apollodorus of Amphipolis.

About this time, Alexander received recruits to the number of 2000 horse, and 13,500 foot, under the command of Amyntas. These he incorporated into his veteran army; himself being present at the reviews as often as they were exercised.

After a stay of about thirty days in Babylon,

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during which time the people abandoned themselves to pleasures of the grossest nature, Alexander marched towards Susa, passing through the fertile province of Sitacene. He arrived at Susa in twenty days. As he approached the city, Abulites, governor of the place, sent his son to meet him, with a promise to surrender the city into his hands, with all the treasures of Darius. The young nobleman conducted Alexander to the river Choaspes, where Abulites himself met him, and performed his promise. The treasures of Susa were added to the coffers of Alexander. Surely he was a mighty robber! He found in this place the brazen statues of Harmodius and Aristogiton, which Xerxes had brought out of Greece, and Alexander now restored them to Athens.

Leaving a strong garrison in the city of Susa, Alexander, after having appointed Archelaus governor of the city, Mezarus, governor of the citadel, and Abulites, governor of the province of Susiana, marched into Persis. Having crossed the river Pasi Tigris (the modern Jerahi) he entered the country of the Uxii. This province extends from Susiana to the frontiers of Persis, and it was governed by Madetes, who was not a follower of fortune. Faithful to his sovereign, he resolved to hold out to the last extremity; for which purpose he retired into a stronghold, in the midst of craggy mountains, and surrounded by steep precipices. Having been chased from thence, he retired into the citadel, whence the besieged sent thirty deputies to Alexander, to sue for quarter. Alexander would not at first listen to the petition; but receiving letters from Sisigambis, whom he had left at Susa, and to whom Madetes was related, he not only pardoned him, but restored him to his former dignity, set all the prisoners free, left the city untouched, and the citizens in the full enjoyment of their ancient liberty and privileges.

Having subdued the Uxii, Alexander ordered Parmenio to march with part of his army through the plain, while he himself, at the head of his light armed troops, crossed the mountains, which extend as far as Persia. On the fifth day, he arrived at the pass of Susa. Ariobarzanes, with 4000 foot, and 700 horse, had possessed himself of this pass, and he had so posted his little band, that they were out of the reach of arrows. As soon as Alexander advanced in order to attack them, they rolled from the top of the mountains stones of a prodigious size, which, rebounding from rock to rock, smote down whole ranks. The conqueror was astounded, and gave orders for a retreat. He withdrew about thirty furlongs, where he lay encamped some time, afraid to proceed, and ashamed to return. His pride was about to be humbled, and his career of victory checked, when a Greek deserter coming to his camp, offered to conduct him through by-paths to the top of the mountains, whence he might compel the Persians to retreat. Accordingly, Alexander, at the head of some chosen troops, having followed his guide by night over rocks and precipices, arrived a little before day-break, at the top of a mountain which commanded all the hills where the enemy was posted. A charge was made, and they fled; and Craterus, who had been left in the camp be

low, advancing with the troops, possessed himself of the pass. Ariobarzanes, with part of the cavalry, breaking through the Macedonians, (by which act many were slaughtered on both sides,) made his escape over the mountains, designing to throw himself into Persepolis; but he was chased back again by the enemy below, and he, with most of his valiant band, perished on the mountains.

Alexander now pursued his march into Persis, or Persia. When he was at some distance from Persepolis, the metropolis of that province, he received letters from Tiridates, governor of that city, urging his speedy arrival, lest the inhabitants of the city should seize the treasures of Darius, to which act they were inclined. Alexander, upon this news, left his infantry behind, marched the whole night at the head of his cavalry, and passing the Araxes by a bridge he had previously ordered to be made, came to Persepolis.

Diodorus tells us, that Alexander, having assembled his troops, made a speech, wherein he charged this city with having caused innumerable mischiefs to Greece, with implacable hatred towards her, and with growing rich by her spoils. To avenge these injuries, he gave it up to them, to do with the inhabitants and their estates whatever they thought proper. The licensed soldiery rushed into the place, and put to the sword, without mercy, all they could find. The cruelties they committed were revolting to human nature: they show to what a dreadful extent the demoniacal spirit of revenge will carry a man when left to himself, or when licensed by a superior.

After this cruel act, leaving Craterus and Parmenio in the place, Alexander proceeded with a small body to reduce the neighbouring cities and strongholds, which submitted at the approach of his troops. He returned to Persepolis, and there took up his winter quarters. It was during this stay that he destroyed the palace, as related in the account of " Persepolis ;" an act worthy of a Goth. The season was spent in feasting and revelling, regardless of the havoc he had made among his species, and of the devastation of the countries over which his ambitious feet had passed. The spring found Alexander again on his march in quest of Darius. That unhappy prince had still an army of 30,000 foot, among whom were 4000 Greeks who continued faithful to his cause. Besides these, he had 4000 slingers, and upwards of 3000 cavalry, most of them Bactrians, commanded by Bessus, governor of the province of Bactriana. All these declared that they were ready to follow him whithersoever he should go, and would shed the last drop of blood in his defence. But there were traitors in the camp. Nabarzanes, one of the greatest lords of Persia, and general of the horse, conspired with Bessus to seize upon the person of the king, and put him in chains. Their design was, if Alexander should pursue them, to secure themselves by giving up Darius alive into his hands; and, in the event of their escape from the conqueror, to murder Darius, usurp his crown, and begin a new war. The traitors soon won over the troops by representing to them that they were going to certain destruction; that they would soon be

crushed under the ruins of an empire already shaken to its foundation; while at the same time Bactriana was open to them, and offered them immense riches. These intrigues were carried on with great secrecy; but, nevertheless, they came to the ears of Darius, and he would not believe them. In vain did Patron, who commanded the Greeks, entreat him to pitch his tent among them, and to trust the guard of his person with men on whose fidelity he might depend. He replied, that it would be a less affliction to him to be deceived by, than to condemn the Persians; that he would suffer the worst of evils amidst those of his own nation, rather than seek for security among strangers, how faithful and affectionate soever he might believe them; and that he could not die too soon, if the Persian soldiers considered him unworthy of life. Darius was soon undeceived; the traitors seized him, bound him in chains of gold, by way of honour, and putting him in a covered chariot, they marched towards Bactriana.

In the mean time, Alexander advanced rapidly towards Media. He reached that province in twelve days, moving nearly forty miles each day. In three days more, he reached Ecbatana, where he was informed that Darius had retired from thence five days before, with intent to pass into the remotest provinces of his empire. He then commanded Parmenio to lay up all the treasures of Persia (which, according to Strabo and Justin, amounted to about 30,000,000l. sterling, exclusive of the rich gifts Alexander had munificently given at various periods to his followers) in the castle of Ecbatana, under a strong guard, which he left there. Alexander, with the rest of his army, pursued Darius, and arrived the eleventh day at Rhages, which is about a day's journey from the Caspian Straits. He was informed that Darius had passed those straits some time before, which information leaving him again without hopes of overtaking his prey, he halted for five days, during which time he settled the affairs of Media.

From Rhages, Alexander marched into Parthia, and encamped the first day at a small distance from the Caspian Straits. He passed those straits the next day, and he had scarcely entered Parthia, when he was informed of the conspiracy against Darius.

This was a fresh motive for Alexander to hasten his march. At length he overtook them; and the barbarians, on his arrival, were seized with consternation. The name and reputation of Alexander, a motive all powerful in war, filled them with such terror, that they universally betook themselves to flight, notwithstanding their number exceeded that of the pursuer. Bessus and his accomplices requested Darius to mount his horse, and flee from the enemy; but he replied that the gods were ready to avenge the evils he had suffered, and invoking Alexander to do him justice, he refused to follow them. At these words, full of rage, they discharged their darts at the unhappy monarch, and left him wounded to the mercy of the Macedonians. This done, they separated, Bessus fleeing towards Hyrcania, and Nabarzanes into Bactria, hoping thereby to elude the pursuit of the enemy, or oblige him to divide his forces. Their hosts

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dispersed themselves up and down, as fear or hope directed their steps, and many thousands were slain.

In the mean time, the horses that drew the cart in which the once mighty Darius was seated, halted, for the drivers had been killed by Bessus, near a village about half a mile from the highway. Polystratus, a Macedonian, being pressed with thirst in the pursuit of the enemy, was soon after conducted by the inhabitants to refresh himself at an adjacent fountain. As he was filling his helmet with water, he heard the groans of a dying man, and looking round, discovered a cart, in which, on drawing near, he found the unhappy monarch. The hunters had long pursued him, and they found him at length in the agonies of death. He had yet strength sufficient to call for a little water, which, when he had taken, he turned to the Macedonian, and, with a faint voice, said, that in the deplorable state to which he was reduced, it was no small consolation to him that his last words would not be lost. He, therefore, charged him to tell Alexander that he died in his debt, without having had the power of returning his obligations; that he thanked him for the kindness he had shown to his mother, wife, and children; that he besought the gods to give victory to his arms, and make him master of the universe; and that he thought he need not entreat him to revenge the traitorous death he suffered, as this was the common cause of kings. Then taking Polystratus by the hand, he added: "Give Alexander your hand, as I give you mine; and carry him, in my name, the only pledge I am able to give, in this condition, of my gratitude and affection." Having uttered these words, Darius expired in the arms of Polystratus.

Alexander, it is said, coming up a few minutes after, and beholding the dead body of the fallen monarch, burst into tears, and bewailed the cruel lot of a prince, who, he observed, was worthy of a better end. Vain tears, and mock bewailings were these. He had pursued him through life, the only season we have for showing real kindness to our fellow-man, and now he weeps and bewails over his lifeless and unregardless corse. They might have been, however, tears of joy; for now he had gained the height of his ambition, now he owned the empire of the east without a rival. Alas! what a miserable creature is man by nature! Tormented with the evil passions of a corrupt nature, he fritters his life away in seeking rest, and finding none."

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After having wept over the body, (whether for joy or sorrow, who can say?) Alexander pulled off his military cloak, and threw it over the loathed object; then causing it to be embalmed, and the coffin to be adorned with regal magnificence, he sent it to Sisigambis, that it might be interred with the ancient Persian monarchs.

Such was the end of Darius Codomannus. He died in the fiftieth year of his age, and sixth of his reign. He was a mild and pacific prince, his reign having been unsullied with injustice, cruelty, or any of those vices to which some of his predecessors had been greatly addicted.

In Darius Codomannus the Persian empire ended, after having existed from the reign of the

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first Cyrus, under thirteen kings, from B.C. 536 to B.C. 331; dating from the time of the annexation of the Babylonian empire to that of the Medes and Persians. But the dissolution of the empire was not owing to the maladministration of Darius Codomannus; it sprung from causes over which he had little or no control. The seeds of its ruin had been sown in its very origin and primitive institution. It had been formed by the union of two nations, of different manners and inclinations. The Persians were a sober, laborious, modest people; the Medes were devoted to pomp, luxury, softness, and voluptuousness. The example of frugality and simplicity which the truly great Cyrus had set them, and their being obliged to be always under arms to gain so many victories, and support themselves in the midst of so many enemies, prevented those vices from spreading for some time; but when their arms had prevailed, and all were subdued before them, the fonduess which the Medes had for pleasure and magnificence soon lessened the temperance of the Persians, and became the prevailing taste of the two nations. The conquest of Babylon added to the declension. That "mother of harlots" intoxicated her victors with her poisoned cup, and enchanted them with her pleasures. She furnished them with ministers and instruments adapted to promote luxury, and to foment and cherish voluptuousness with art and delicacy; and the wealth of the richest provinces in the world being at the disposal of their sovereigns, they were enabled to satiate their desires. Cyrus himself contributed to this, without foreseeing the consequences. After his victories, he inspired his subjects with an admiration for pomp and show, which, hitherto, they had been taught to despise as airy trifles. He suggested that magnificence and riches should crown glorious exploits, and be the end and fruit of them; thereby authorizing them to indulge themselves in their naturally corrupt inclinations. He spread the evil farther by compelling the various officers of the empire to appear with splendour before the multitude, the better to represent his own greatness. The consequence of this was, that these officials mistook their ornaments and trappings for the essentials of their employments, while the wealthy proposed them as patterns for imitation, and were soon followed by the different grades of society.

These acts undermined the ancient virtues of the Persians. Scarcely was Cyrus dead, when there arose up as it were another nation, and monarchs of a different genius and character. Instead of the severe education anciently bestowed on the Persian youth, their young men were brought up in splendour and effeminacy; whence they learned to despise the happy simplicity of their forefathers, and the nation became corrupted. In one generation, under this enervating tuition, the Persian character became haughty, vain, effeminate, inhuman, and perfidious; and they, of all people under the sun, were the most abandoned to splendour, luxury, feasting, and drunkenness; so that it may be affirmed that the empire of the Persians was almost from its very birth what other empires became through length of ages. Rome sunk under her corruptions, but