justices, who were to hold two sessions annually, at the seat of the National Government. Circuit and district courts were also established, which had jurisdiction over certain specified cases. Each State was made a district, as were also the Territories of Kentucky and Maine. The districts, except Kentucky

Tenchlose

and Maine, were grouped together into three circuits. An appeal from these lower courts to the Supreme Court of the United States, was allowed, as to points of law, in all civil cases when the matter in dispute amounted to two thousand dollars. A marshal was to be appointed by the President, for each district, having the general powers of a sheriff, who was to attend all courts, and was authorized to serve all processes. A district attorney, to act for the United States in all cases in which the National Government might be interested, was also to be appointed for each district. Such, in brief outline, and in general terms, was the National judiciary, organized at the commencement of the Government, and still in force, with slight modifications.

The next business of importance that engaged the attention of Congress,

'John Jay [page 379] of New York, one of the most active and acute lawyers in the country, was apppointed the first Chief Justice of the United States; and Edmund Randolph, of Virginia, was made Attorney-General. Randolph succeeded Patrick Henry as governor of Virginia, in 1786, and was very active in the Convention of 1787. See note 1, page 359. He succeeded Jefferson as Secretary of State, and died in 1813. John Rutledge [page 2101. of South Carolina; James Wilson, of Pennsylvania; William Cushing, of Massachusetts; Robert H. Harrison, of Maryland; and John Blair, of Virginia, were appointed associate judges. Page 377. Page 452.

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3

was the proposed amendments to the National Constitution, made by the minorities of the several conventions which ratified that instrument. This subject was brought forward by Madison, in justice to these minorities, and pursuant to pledges which he had found it necessary to give, in order to secure its ratification in Virginia. These amounted, in the aggregate, to one hundred and forty-seven,' besides separate bills of rights proposed by Virginia and New York. Many of these amendments were identical in spirit, as, for example, the nine propositions by Massachusetts were repeated by New Hampshire. And it is a singular fact, that of all the proposed amendments, not one, judged by subsequent experience, was of a vital character. How well this illustrates the profound wisdom embodied in our Constitution! Sixteen amendments were finally agreed to by Congress, ten of which were subsequently ratified by the States, and became a part of the Supreme Law. After a session of almost six months, Congress adjourned,' on the 29th of September [1789], and Washington, having appointed his cabinet council, made a brief tour through the northern and eastern States, to make himself better acquainted with the people and their resources."

On the 8th of January, 1790, the second session of the first Congress commenced, during which Alexander Hamilton, the first Secretary of the Treasury, nade some of those able financial reports which established the general line of national policy for more than twenty years. On his recommendation, the general government assumed the public foreign and domestic debt incurred by the Late war, and also the State debts contracted during that period. The foreign lebt, including interest, due to France and to private lenders in Holland, with a small sum to Spain, amounted to $11,710,378. The domestic debt, registered and unregistered, including interest, and some claims, principally the outstanding continental money," amounted to $42,414,085. Nearly one third of this was the arrears of interest. As the government certificates, continental

1 The minority of the Pennsylvania Convention proposed 14; of Massachusetts, 9; of Maryland, 28; of South Carolina, 4; of New Hampshire, 12; of Virginia, 20; of New York, 32. See Supplement.

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A few days before the adjournment, a resolution was adopted, requesting the President of the United States to recommend a day of public thanksgiving and prayer, to be observed by the people of the nation, in acknowledgment of the many signal favors of the Almighty, in permitting them to establish, in peace, a free government.

GENERAL KNOX.

Note 2, page 360.

7 Note 2, page 253.

Alexander Hamilton was appointed Secretary of the Treasury; Henry Knox, Secretary of War; and Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of Foreign Affairs. Jefferson was then United States minister at the court of France, and did not enter upon his duties until March, 1790. The office of Secretary of the Navy was not created until the presidency of Mr. Adams. Naval affairs were under the control of the Secretary of War. General Knox was one of the most efficient officers of the Revolution, having, from the beginning, the chief command of the artillery. He entered the army as captain of artillery, and rose to the rank of major-general. Note 4, page 350.

Washington was everywhere received with great honors; and Trumbull, author of M'Fingal, wrote to his friend, Oliver Wolcott: "We have gone through all the popish grades of worship; and the President returns all fragrant with the odor of incense."

In that note the amount given is the principal, without the interest.

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Page 245.

bills, and other evidences of debt, were now held chiefly by speculators, who had purchased them at reduced rates, the idea had been put forth by prominent men, that it would be proper and expedient to apply a scale of depreciation, as in the case of the paper money toward the close of the war,' in liquidating these claims. But Hamilton opposed it as dishonest and impolitic, arguing, in support of the latter objection, that public credit was essential to the new Federal Government. He therefore urged that all the debts of the government should be met according to the terms of the contract. He proposed the funding of the public debt, in a fair and economical way, by which the public creditors should receive their promised six per cent. interest, until the Government should be able to pay the principal, the Secretary assuming that, in five years, the United States might effect loans at five, and even at four per cent., with which these claims might be liquidated. He proposed to have the proceeds of the post-office as a sinking fund, for the gradual extinction of the debt. After much debate, the propositions of Hamilton, in general, were agreed to by Congress, on the 9th of March, 1790.' A system of revenue from imposts and internal excise, proposed by Hamilton, was also adopted. A petition from

the Society of Friends, or Quakers, presented on the 11th of February, on the subject of slavery, caused long, and, sometimes, acrimonious debates. An act was also passed, during this session, making the District of Columbia the permanent seat of the National Government, after the lapse of ten years from that date.

The First Congress commenced its third session in December, 1790, an before its close, measures were adopted which laid the foundations of public credit and national prosperity, deep and abiding. During the two years in which the new government had been engaged in the business of organization, a competent revenue had been provided for; the public debt, national and State, had been funded, and the interest thereon had been provided for; a national judiciary, wise in all its features, had been established; and the nation, in its own estimation and that of other States of the world, had taken a proud position in the great political family. North Carolina [Nov. 21, 1789] and Rhode Island [May 29, 1790], had already become members of the National Union, by ratifying the Constitution; and during this session, Vermont had been admitted [February 18, 1791] as a State. Settlements were now rapidly spreading beyond the Alleghanies,' and the subject of territorial organizations

Note 3, page 245.

Page 373.

The President was authorized to borrow $12,000,000, if necessary, to pay off the foreign debt; and a new loan was to be opened, payable in certificates, of the domestic debt, at their par value, and in continental bills of credit, at the rate of one hundred for one. Congress also authorized an additional loan, payable in certificates of the State debts, to the amount of $21,500,000. These certificates were those which had been issued for services or supplies, during the war. A new board of commissioners was appointed, with full power to settle all claims on general principles of equity. Note 3, page 366. Page 360. • Vermont was originally called the New Hampshire Grants, and was claimed by both New York and New Hampshire. In 1777, the people met in convention, and proclaimed the territory an independent State. After purchasing the claims of New York for $30,000, it was admitted into the Union.

The first census, or enumeration of the inhabitants of the United States, was completed in 1791. The number of all sexes and colors, was 3,929,000. The number of slaves was 695,000.

was pressed upon the consideration of Congress. Already the North-western Territory, as we have seen,' had been established [July, 1787], and Tennessee had been constituted [March 26, 1790] the Territory South-west of the Ohio.1

The subject of a national currency early engaged the attention of Congress, and at the commencement of the last session of the First Congress, a bill for the establishment of a national bank was introduced into the Senate, in accordance with the suggestion and plan of Hamilton. At that time the whole banking capital in the United States was only $2,000,000, invested in the Bank of North America, at Philadelphia, established by Robert Morris ;' the Bank of New York, in New York city, and the Bank of Massachusetts, in Boston. The charter was limited to twenty years; its location was to be in the city of Philadelphia, and its management to be intrusted to twenty-five directors. Although chartered in January, 1791, the National Bank did not commence its operations, in corporate form, until in February, 1794, when it began with a capital of $10,000,000.

Early in the first session of the second Congress, the important subject of a national mint received the attention of the representatives of the people. That subject had been frequently discussed. As early as 1782, the topic of coins and currency had been presented to the Continental Congress, by Gouverneur Morris, in an able report, written at the request of Robert Morris. In 1784, Mr. Jefferson, as chairman of a committee appointed for the purpose, submitted a report, agreeing with Morris in regard to a decimal system, but entirely disagreeing with him in the details." He proposed to strike four coins, namely, a golden piece of the value of ten dollars; a dollar, in silver; a tenth of a dollar, in silver; and a hundredth of a dollar, dollar, in copper. In 1785, Congress adopted Mr. Jefferson's report, and made legal provision, the following year, for a coinage upon that basis. This was the origin of our cent, dime, dollar, and eagle. Already several of the States had issued copper coins; but the National Constitution vested the right of coinage solely in the General Government. The establishment of a Mint was delayed, however, and no special action in that direction was taken until 1790, when Mr. Jefferson, then Secretary of

1 Page 362.

2 The subject of the public lands of the United States has always been one of interest. The first act of Congress, on the subject of limited sales, was in accordance with a scheme proposed by Hamilton, in 1790, which provided in some degree for the protection of small purchasers. Previous to that, not less than a tract of four thousand acres could be purchased. This was calculated to make labor subservient to wealth, in new settlements. Hamilton's scheme was highly approved. The minimum price of public land, previous to 1800, was two dollars per acre; since then, one dollar and twenty-five cents. The extent of the public domain has greatly increased, by accessions, within a few years. At the close of 1855, there remained unsold about 96,000,000 of acres of surveyed public domain, and of the unsurveyed, about 136,000,000 of acres, worth, in the aggregate, about $276,000,000. The average cost to the government, per acre, of acquiring title, surveying, selling, and managing, is about 22 cents per acre, while it sells at $1.25 per acre, or a net profit of $1.03. Note 3, page 263.

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✦ Morris attempted to harmonize the moneys of all the States. Starting with an ascertained fraction as an unit, for a divisor, he proposed the following table of moneys:

Ten units to be equal to one penny.

Ten pence to one bill.

Ten bills one dollar (or about seventy-five cents of our currency).
Ten dollars one crown.

Note 4, page 122.

State, urged the matter upon the attention of Congress. Still there was delay, until on the 2d of April, 1792, laws were enacted for the establishment of a Mint. During three years from that time, its operations were chiefly experimental, and long debates were had concerning the devices for the new coins.' The Mint was finally put into full operation, in 1795, and has continued to increase in its issues of coin, ever since."

A bill for the organization of a post-office system, was passed during the same session that measures were adopted for the establishment of a Mint. Very soon after the commencement of the first session of the first Congress, a letter was received from Ebenezer Hazzard [July 17, 1789], then postmaster-general under the old Confederation, suggesting the importance of some new regulations for that department. A bill for the temporary establishment of the post office was passed soon afterward. The subject was brought up, from time to time, until the present system was organized in 1792. The postmaster-general was not made a cabinet officer until the first year [1829] of President Jackson's administration.*

British agents on the north-western frontier continued to tamper with the Indians, and excite them to hostilities against the United States, for several years after the peace of 1783. And, contrary to the terms of that treaty, the British held possession of western posts belonging to the United States. These facts caused a prevalent belief that the British government yet hoped for an opportunity to bring the new Republic back to colonial dependence. The public mind in America became excited, and the fact, that Sir John Johnston was the British Indian agent on that frontier, and Sir Guy Carleton (then Lord Dorchester) was again governor of Canada,' strengthened that opinion and apprehension. Finally, in the spring of 1790, the fostered discontents of the Indians were developed into open hostilities. Attempts at pacific arrangements were fruitless, and General Harmer was sent into the Indian country north of the present Cincinnati, with quite a strong force, to desolate their villages and

'The Senate proposed the head of the President of the United States who should occupy the chair at the time of the coinage. In the House, the head of Liberty was suggested, as being less aristocratic than that of the President-having less the stamp of royalty. The head of Liberty was finally adopted.

The first mint was located in Philadelphia, and remained the sole issuer of coin, in the United States, until 1835, when a branch was established in each of the States of Georgia, North Carolina, and Louisiana-in Charlotte, Dahlonega, and New Orleans. These three branches went into operation in the years 1837-38.

From 1793 to 1795, inclusive, the value of the whole issue was less than half a million of dollars. Previous to the year 1830, almost the entire supply of gold for our coinage was furnished by foreign countries. North Carolina was the first State of the Union that sent gold to the Mint from its mines. Since then, almost every State has made contributions, some very small. During the fiscal year ending in June, 1861, when the Civil War was kindling, the value of the entire issue of coin, by the Government Mint and its branches, was $84,000,000. The discovery of gold in California, in 1848. opened an immense treasury, and, up to the beginning of the war, that was the only great gold producing region within the Republic. Of the entire amount of gold, from domestic mines, deposited in the Mint up to 1860, valued at $489,311,000, $469,406,003 was sent from California. Adjacent territories are now [1867] yielding largely,

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Page 459. The operations of the post-office department increased very rapidly year after year. In 1795, the number of post-office routes was 453; over 13,207 miles of travel. The revenue of the department was $160,620. When the Civil War began, in 1861, the number of routes was about 9,000; the number of miles traveled, full 260,000; and the revenue nearly $9,000,000.

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Page 348.

Note 2, page 278.

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Page 240.