ing to order dated March 28th, 1808, officers shall draw only half salary, which however is but seldom practiced. In accordance with the cabinet order of June 15th, 1863, during a leave of absence, salary is paid in full for the first six weeks; half pay for four and a half months' longer, and no salary afterwards. In case of sickness no deduction is made. During a journey for purposes of science, the expenses for a deputy are deducted. The same authority which commissions for a position is to receive also application for discharge, which shall only be refused when the general interests would suffer by acceptance. The teacher is not allowed to leave his post until arrangements have been made for a successor or for temporary occupation. The regular period for giving notice of discontinuance in office is generally six months, and to begin April 1st, or October 1st. The salary of teachers, at the beginning of this century, was everywhere mostly very small and very rarely fixed in amount. The greater part of the receipts was derived from various fees and perquisites, some of them even degrading, of which the history of some schools furnishes ample evidence. Only since the reorganization of the State the government has continually labored to procure a fixed living salary for teachers, and particularly to abolish their dependence on the fees paid for instruction. For if by these a just equalization between labor and wages was effected, they very readily led to overcrowding of classes and other inconveniences, from which a school should be kept free. Pro-temporary officials receive a remuneration which can only exceptionally amount to the regular salary. The principal and most important emolument, a free residence, has been retained whenever it is derived from donative funds or local appropriations. As a matter of course the director has a suitable dwelling in the institution, and where this is not the case, it is looked upon as an evil which should be remedied as soon as possible.

During a mobilization of the army, for those who are called into active service and who have their household with wife and child, a decrease in salary takes place, from the beginning of the month in which they are obliged to leave their homes, but only so far as their salary and military pay together passes beyond the amount of 800 th. per year. Salaries are paid every quarter of a year in advance; for accidental duties at the institution, remuneration is generally granted. During a journey in the interest of the service, and when a removal to another position takes place, mileage is paid proportionate to the office. Teachers who, without fault of theirs, find themselves in reduced circumstances, may have extraordinary assistance from the funds of the State, if their yearly income is not above 1000 th., (thaler, 72 cents.)

The janitors of the school, who in accordance with a resolution of the Department of Oct. 12th, 1837, shall be selected from the military invalids entitled to maintenance in civil life, receive above their salary a dwelling-place in the institution, and materials for fuel and light. The collections taken up formerly among the students as a Christmas present, have been discontinued, and they receive instead a remuneration from the funds of the school.

The granting of pensions, up to the third decade of this century, was an act of royal favor; communities and corporations also exercised such acts of grace towards teachers no longer capable for duty, and often to a considerable amount. A law for the pensioning of teachers, after much deliberation and conferring with the provincial authorities, was enacted, May 28th, 1846, and received the royal approbation. According to it all teachers and officers of superior schools become entitled to a pension during life, if after a certain period in service they become incapable for duty not by their own fault, and if they were duly commissioned. If at an advanced age they are not absolutely incapable for duty, but unable to satisfy the requirements of their office, they are obliged, if the Department thinks proper, to pay an assistant appointed to aid them; however, there must be left for them a salary at least equal to the pension. The amount of pension is fixed by a scale; after fifteen years of service, foursixteenths, after fifty years, twelve-sixteenths of their salary. The time of service is computed from the date of their taking the oath of office, and if they did not take such, from the day of their first entry into service. The trial year is not included, but the time passed in active military service is, and time of service before the enemy counts double. The fund for pensions is derived from yearly contributions of the salary, as introduced since January 1st, 1847; to the amount of one per cent. of 400 th.; one and one-fourth per cent. of 1000 th.; two per cent. of 2000 th., and three per cent. of 3000 th.; moreover, one-twelfth of the whole salary must be paid in one installment.

The families of teachers who die in office, receive at the end of the month in which the death occurred, one quarter's salary; those of pensioned teachers that of one month. Every teacher commissioned for one of the higher schools is entitled and required to enter the "Institute for the support of widows," at Berlin, unless his age is too far advanced or ill health oppose his becoming a member. The amount insured must be at least one-fifth of the salary, and is not allowed to be above 500 th. In extraordinary cases, voluntary pensions are given to widows, generally only from 50 to 100 th., and means for education in schools are granted for orphaned boys to their seventeenth year, and for girls to their fifteenth year, in monthly rates from one-half to two thalers. Many of these institutes possess considerable donations for widows and orphans.

III. REGULATIONS OF EXAMINATION OF TEACHERS.

The "Magdeburg Order of Visitation," (1563,) required the magistrate, with the consent of the resident pastor and superintendent, to appoint the public school-teacher. More minute regulations on an "examination" of teachers at the Latin and German schools were contained in the royal order of Sept. 30th, 1718, according to which they should be examined by the consistory or the general superintendent before being commissioned, and to those who gave satisfaction a testimonial should be given, and no one could be commissioned without it. Repeated instructions of 1750 and 1764 declared that no teacher should be engaged or promoted

without the approbation of the superior consistory, and the instruction for the superior school-collegium of Feb. 22d, 1787, ordered that a teacher should be appointed only on the ground of a testimonial from this authority. The candidate proposed for a vacant teachership was presented to the consistory or school-collegium of the province, which referred him to one of their members, generally to an experienced teacher. In this much depended on the character and learning of the latter, and these examinations lacked uniformity. Gedike, who, as a member of the superior school-collegium, was often charged with like examinations, gives a detailed sketch thereof in the programme of the gymnasiums of Frederickswerder of 1789 (collected writings on schools, II. pp. 90.) By the patrons of city schools, as long as teachers were mostly theologians, the evidence of their education for the ministerial office was generally deemed sufficient; likewise the recommendation of a distinguished scholar, or trial lessons, or the degree of Bachelor or Master of Arts given by a university, or the testimonials of their attendance at seminaries for theology, philology or pedagogy. But this custom proved more and more insufficient for the higher schools, since newly revived humanitarianism penetrated more deeply into them, and they no longer selected their teachers from among the candidates of theology, but from candidates who had been specially trained for higher teachership and proved more suitable. Thus, when the centralizing organization of the State extended also to the field of education, an examination of candidates for higher teachership, legal throughout the State, was ordered by the edict of July 12th, 1810, which at first was made by deputations of the Department of Public Instruction, and latterly by a special commission of examinations. The regulations for examination had been drawn up by W. von Humboldt, Schleiermacher and Süvern. Of the motives, Humboldt had stated that such examinations are the only barrier that could be opposed to the abuse of the rights of patronage. It would honor the profession of teachers in the State, if every one who enters it had first to give evidence of his qualification. Fr. A. Wolf also declared himself in favor of not admitting any to teach at the secondary schools, though they had graduated at universities, unless they had been examined and authorized by the commission of examinations. The examination should consist in written theses, oral questioning and trial lessons. The commission could dispense with one of these. Those who, after presenting a dissertation in Latin and passing the regular oral examination at one of the faculties for philosophy of one of the State universities, had obtained the degree of Master of Arts, were not subject to further examination, only to a trial lesson. With members of seminaries for classic schools, the examination taken at their entrance by the director of the same, was sufficient. Distinguished foreigners called to professorships by the Prussian Department of Instruction were not subjected to any examination. The certificate given pointed out distinctly in what branches the candidate was well posted or weak, what proportion his skill in teaching held

to his knowledge, and the degree of his general qualification was indicated in the authority to teach in secondary-schools. The examination was called "examen pro facultate docendi." Those proposed for a permanent professorship, had to pass an examen pro loco, in which regard should be had only to the necessary knowledge and skill for the particular position. To dispense from examinations was the privilege of the Department for Public Instruction. These regulations took effect, Jan. 1st, 1813. The requirements made of candidates at first were trifling, and the taking effect of the regulations fell in a time when Mars was worshiped more than Minerva; but when, after 1815, studies could again be pursued undisturbedly, a continually increasing zeal for the study of philology and philosophy manifested itself, and gradually a class of teachers, scientifically educated, formed itself, the like of which could not be found easily at any other time, and towards which chief counselor Johannes Schulze largely contributed by encouraging learned publications and attaching promotion to the same; particularly in the selection of directors great weight was given to successful labor as an author. A regulation of the department of Aug. 21, 1824, called to the attention of the consistories the one-sidedness of philologic preparation, and demanded that examinations should be extended principally on logic and metaphysics, psychology and history of philosophy, history and theology; but that very one-sidedness had trained the best powers of teaching, and if the examination in philosophy had remained in the background, there was among the students of that time such great zeal for education in philosophy, that without special requirements at the examination, all studies were enlivened thereby, even in a more extensive and more liberal manner than is possible by the anxiety to pass an examination. The afore-mentioned circular, in calling upon the commission for examination, to pay strict regard to "thoroughness and quality of philosophy and the study thereof, to the end that the shallow and superficial philosophisms which in modern times compose wholly the science of philosophy, may give way to fundamental studies, and that philosophy may obtain again her honorable and useful position among the sciences, and that academic youth, instead of being bewildered and darkened by after-philosophy, may be conducted by thorough instruction in a genuine philosophical spirit, to a clear, correct and complete application of the powers of the mind," was particularly meant for the study of the philosophy of Hegel, and the early appointment of Hegel into the commission for examination coincided with it. The objections raised, by the commission of Berlin only, against the practicability of the order of the department in reference to philosophy, were replied to on Aug. 13th, 1865, that "the different branches of philosophy in which examination should be had, give to the examining person forthwith a distinct and concrete subject, by which to discover whether the candidate has mentally appropriated what he heard in the lectures on philosophy at the university." The observation of the commission, that no law did exist, and could not very well exist,

according to which one system of philosophy only should be studied by the young at the academy, was refused as trivial and not called for by the circular of the department.

The circular of Aug. 21st, 1824, directed further that each candidate for teachership, who had been examined, should pass another trial before a member of the consistory, in regard to his knowledge in theology. Of those who did not want to be qualified for instructing religion, they should particularly inquire whether they possess the knowledge of the Christian doctrines of faith and morality requisite for teachers at a gymnasium, while of those intending to become qualified for teaching religion, they should require sufficient knowledge in the exegesis of the Old and New Testaments, and in church history. In proposing for the office of professor or director, those who had a thorough education in theology should be principally favored.

In a corresponding manner it was ordered, under date of Sept. 2, 1826, that a Catholic clergyman, well schooled and of distinguished reputation, should be invited, with the approbation of the archiepiscopal see of Cologne, to examine Catholic candidates for teachership in their knowledge of religion, and to do this if possible at the place where the commission of education held their session.

Candidates for teachership, who desired to be engaged at the higher burgher schools only, should be admitted to the examination pro facul> tate docendi, though they had not passed the triennium academicum, or not frequented a university at all. But with regard to regular teachers of science at the higher burgher-schools, or schools of commerce, and technical or real-schools in larger cities, in which an education was obtained for the higher mechanics or for the commercial profession, principally in mathematics, the natural sciences, history and geography, German literature, technology and modern languages, it was ordained by instruction of March 29th, 1827, that their commission should depend on a previous well-passed examination in these branches.

The requirements for teachers of higher schools, changed and enlarged in the course of time, made necessary the preparation of new rules for examination, which are still extant, and which were composed by Joh. Schulze on the basis of opinions presented by the different commissions for examination. In these are distinguished the examination: 1, pro facultate docendi; 2, pro loco; 3, pro ascensione; 4, the colloquium pro rectorata. Subjects in examination are: 1, the German, Latin, Greek, French, and Hebrew languages; 2, mathematics, natural philosophy, history and geography, philosophy and pedagogy, theology. However, it should not be forbidden to any candidate to be examined in other languages and sciences, to which he had devoted himself, and which stood in connection with objects of instruction at secondary-schools. A main condition for admission was the complete academic triennium, and in 1841 a rule was added, that every one who desired to enter the service of the Prussian government must have studied at a Prussian university