From the circumstance that Lightfoot, with all his knowledge of the rabbinical writers, was unable to find names and offices for two persons of the batlanin, the conclusion is direct that the synagogue institutions were at all times loose and accommodating; their application being determined by circumstances that varied according to the condition of different communities.

After the reading of the prayers or liturgy, the chazan brought out the roll or volume of the law, and some one among the congregation was called up by name, who having ascended the pulpit, under the superintendence of the chazan, read the first section of the portion of the law appointed to be read on that day,* for the Pentateuch was divided into as many portions as there are weeks in the year, and thus the whole was read over in the course of that time.

When the first reader had finished the first section, he descended from the pulpit, and a second person was called up from the congregation who read the second section, and so on in like manner until seven persons had each read a section, which concluded the whole portion appointed to be read on that day.

After these various services had been completed, there was frequently a discourse delivered to the congregation, analogous to our sermon. This practice, Vitringa (Bernard's Abridg. 100,) states, originated about a century before Christ. The person who more properly preached this sermon was the head or chief ruler of the synagogue, but he could authorize any one whom he saw fit to address the congregation. Thus Maimonides says, "if there be no elder present, they appoint some rabbi to preach who is not an elder; if there be no rabbi present, they appoint some person of known character and integrity." After the sermon or exhortation, a blessing was pronounced, and the congregation retired.

There was also an afternoon and evening attendance at the synagogue, with an appointed service of prayers and lectures, and the first section of the portion of the law appointed to be recited on the ensuing Sabbath was then read, which was also repeated on the second and fifth days of the week.

It was in compliance with this custom that our Saviour at the synagogue at Nazareth "stood up to read."—Luke iv. 16.

In conformity with this practice Paul and Barnabas preached to the Jews in their synagogue at Antioch in Pisidia. (Acts xiii. 15.) "And after the reading of the law and the prophets, the rulers of the synagogue sent unto them saying, ye men and brethren, if ye have any word of exhortation for the people, say on." &c. v. 1.

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We must also call the reader's attention to the circumstance, that the whole subject of synagogue institution and its administrations was in the hands of laymen. There is no recognition anywhere in the rabbinical writings that either the priests or levites had anything whatever to do with them.

It only remains to complete our view of the synagogue that we say a few words on the house or place of meeting.

A synagogue as a mere place of assembly might be a private room, or house hired, or built for the purpose. Where the arrangements could be made to suit the notions of the Jews, they divided the apartment into two divisions, the larger one being provided with seats or benches, upon which the congregation were seated with their faces towards the smaller division, in which the elders or rulers of the synagogue sat on a semi-circular bench facing the people.

Behind the elders was a recess covered by a vail or curtain, in which was placed the ark or chest wherein the books of Moses alone were deposited, the other sacred books being arranged on the sides of the recess.

In front of the elders was a platform capable of supporting sev eral persons, and on this platform was a desk, or as it is sometimes called, a pulpit, from which the law was read and sermons preached.

There were always lamps burning in the synagogue, a practice which is conjectured to have originated from a desire to imitate that appointment in the temple.

There were also two boxes prepared to receive the alms that might be contributed by the members of the synagogue; these were sometimes within the room, but more commonly were placed at the door. The alms thus collected were divided among the poor of the congregation. But if the synagogue was out of the limits of Judea, a portion was set apart for their poor brethren residing at Jerusalem, or other places in the holy land.*

As the hypothesis of the Jewish writers concerning synagogue institutions is exceedingly perplexed by their notions respecting the functions exercised by the rabbins, I deem it proper before terminating this investigation to say a few words on that subject as exhibiting their true position in respect to synagogue observ

ances.

This practice of sending contributions to the relief of poor Christians in Judea, was continued by the apostles. Acts xi. 29; Rom. xv. 25, 26; Gal. ii. 10.

From the very commencement of the Jewish people as a nation, there were certain persons among them who as penmen, fulfilled every purpose accomplished through the medium of writing. These as a peculiar class were generically termed sephorim, commonly translated scribes.

The constant reading and copying of the law made the scribes familiar with its appointments and statutes, and thus by the necessity of the case would be formed a class of men learned in the law, who were ready at all times to use their knowledge as it might be required of them. They could act as casuists to conscientious individuals, or as counsellers to persons having civil. causes to be tried before the zokonem or elders. In this manner the scribe became qualified to act as lawyer and divine in the sense in which we use those terms.

After the Babylonian captivity, when the people returned to Judea ignorant of their ancient language, the scribe whether as copyist, casuist, or lawyer, became of greater importance and influence than heretofore; for the people at large had now to look to them as the interpreters of those sacred books, whose language was no longer understood by the uneducated classes. In process of time the scribes or learned men having multiplied in the land, and a profound knowledge of the law having become an absolute requisite to office, or reputation, the more eminently learned men. among them, about fifty years before Christ, were denominated rabbi, which signifies learned man, elliptically, learned scribe. Certain of these rabbins about this time opened schools for the express instruction of young men in the laws of Moses, as set forth by the interpretations and comments of persons of a former day, whose reputation for wisdom was acknowledged by the learned. After these students had acquired the amount of knowledge that the teacher could communicate, they were then ordained, i. e. were publicly recognized as rabbins or learned men, on the same principle as is done in our colleges when they confer a literary degree,

Maimonides says: (De Syned. chap. iv.) In former times every rabbi had authority to ordain his students, but as some inconveniences resulted from this great multiplication of rabbins, the Great Sanhedrin at Jerusalem thought proper to restrict them in this particular, and to confine the power to the Nasi, or president of the Great Sanhedrin; not that it must be done exclusively by his hands, but that no rabbi should be ordained as such without his permission. This exclusive privilege Maimonides says was first conferred on Hillel the elder (i. e. the Zokon) about thirty years before Christ.

This ordination, or constituting a rabbi, was commonly done by an imposition of hands, but not always; it being sufficient that the rabbi conferring the degree should say "Behold thou art ordained a rabbi," &c. There was also some difference in the degree of authority conferred on them by this title, for whilst some had only a power of judging between men in cases of disputes, according to recognized precedents, other rabbins were authorized "to bind and loose," i. e. to declare what was permitted or what was prohibited by the law according to their own views, and especially so in novel matters or where the point of law was embarrassed by the conflicting opinions of different rabbins.

The phrase to bind and loose, was simply authority to declare what particulars of Jewish observances were obligatory or not, and the rabbinical writings are full of illustrations as to this matter. If a rabbi declared in his opinion the matter was obligatory, he was said to bind it; on the contrary, if he stated it was not to be observed, it was said he loosed it. See numerous quotations from the rabbins on this subject in Lightfoot's works, iii. 99, &c. Or in a more common work, Dr. A. Clarke's note on Math. xvi. 19. Burder (Relig. Cerem. 58,) says, that in the ordination of a rabbi the books of Moses with a key on them is put into his hands.

Maimonides, see Jahn Bib. Arch. part i. note to chap. vi. also mentions the key given to a rabbi on his ordination as signifying he might now open to others the treasures of knowledge.

Our Lord used the same form of speech to his disciples, when he spoke of giving them the keys of the kingdom of heaven, with power to bind and loose, which they undoubtedly understood according to established usage.

From the preceding exposition, I apprehend the reader will clearly appreciate the true character of a rabbi. His designation as such was not from any ecclesiastical ordination, as is done by us when we ordain a clergyman to the discharge of ministerial functions, but he was constituted a rabbi by his teachers. In other words they pronounced him qualified to instruct others, and as such might be elected by the people to discharge any of the peculiar offices of the synagogue. But his character as being a rabbi, did not give him any authority in an ecclesiastical sense. Whatever influence he might be able to exert on the congregation, arose exclusively from his reputation for learning or wisdom respecting the interpretation of the law of Moses as essentially founded on the traditions of the elders.

CHAPTER THIRTEENTH.

INVESTIGATION CONCERNING THE PROMULGATION OF THE CHRISTIAN DISPENSATION UNDER THE PERSONAL MINISTRY OF THE LORD JESUS CHRIST.

AT the times immediately preceding the promulgation of the gospel, or about forty years before the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, those hopes of peace and security which the priesthood and wealthier Jews had anticipated from the incorporation of Judea into the Roman Empire, as we shewed at page 295, were found to be wholly delusive. For the Roman Governors by their rapacity and misrule had excited a nearly universal indignation of the Jewish people against Rome. The Zealots, openly in arms against them, were every where increasing in numbers throughout the country, and their robberies and murders of Roman officers and soldiers whenever found in small detachments, continually. induced acts of vengeance on the part of Roman governors against the nation at large, who they were well aware, generally speaking, sympathised with the Zealots, though they may have censured them for certain excesses and outrages.

The high priests, whose rule over the country was now essentially sustained by the Roman legions, were nervously anxious to repress every appearance of insubordination on the part of the Jewish people, lest it should afford a pretext to the Roman gov-. ernors to avenge their slighted authority by a military massacre, or to extort a heavy pecuniary ransom by forbearing to exercise their power.

The leaders of the Pharisees and Sadducees, though as hostile as ever in their religious sectarianism, yet, generally speaking, appear to have both sustained the high priests in their administration of the national affairs; and as such concurred in vindicating the Roman domination, oppressive as it was. For such was the anarchy of the times, that they could no where else see any protection for life or property. Many of them, doubtless, groaned in spirit under this condition of things, but they could anticipate no deliverance from it unless through the agencies of the Mes