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Expansion in the direction of the Pacific has seemed to Russia to involve the least resistance as well as being of immense importance to her in Oriental politics and commercial influence.

Her great efforts of recent years have been directed toward securing an ice-free port on the Pacific. This was directly her reason for the occupation of Korea.

While the relations of Russia with the Far East go back to the conquest of Siberia and even farther, we are particularly concerned here only with her advances in the latter part of the 19th century.*

In 1867 Russia got a strong hold on the island of Saghalien. She exercised joint sovereignty with Japan over the island. In 1875 she found means to oust Japan and appropriated the whole island to herself. This is an excellent example of Russian unscruplousness that was bound, sooner or later, to be met by the desperate revenge of the Japanese. Such action of Russia only helped on the Europeanizing of Japan to meet her hated rival in the Far East.

The events which finally brought Russia and Japan into collision, arose from Russia's construction of the Trans

4 The history of Russian politics in Manchuria may be divided into four periods: (1) From the beginning (three centuries back) to the "Cassini Convention," 1896, which conceded to her first privileges in the North of this province,-principally the right to build the Trans-Siberian Railway across the Chinese territory to Vladivostock.

(2) From 1896 to the Boxer Uprising, 1900. During this period
Russia obtained the cession on lease of Port Arthur and the
right to prolong the Railroad to this port by a branch which
traverses all Manchuria.

(3) From 1900 to the agreement for the evacuation of Manchuria,
1902. Boxer uprising gave Russia the pretext and occasion
to conquer Manchuria and establish herself there firmly.
(4) From 1902 to the outbreak of War (Feb., 1904). Convention
signed with China for evacuation of Manchuria-followed by
period of negotiations-in which Japan distinguishes herself
by her opposition to Russia and brings on the War.—Ac-
cording to M. Rey, on Causes of Russo-Japanese War in
Revue General de Droit International Public, V, XII, 215-ff.

Siberian Railway to the Pacific, with the end in view (her long cherished hope) of securing an ice-free port on the Pacific.

Railroads in the Far East have been the forerunners and occasions of war. Russia was trying to grasp a port that was not hers. She under-estimated the fatal consequences

of such an action.

If Russia had confined her aggressive movements to Manchuria alone, the present history of the Far East would doubtless have been far different. But, to secure her ends, she made similar encroachments in Korea, particularly in interfering in this peninsula after the China-Japanese War.5

Korea had been tributary to both China and Japan for centuries. She claimed independence at various times. In 1875, the Koreans fired upon a Japanese man-of-war and in redress were forced to open trade with Japan and receive a Japanese minister at the Korean Court.

China unwillingly gave up her suzerainty over Korea, 1875-85. She now agreed with Japan that if events should necessitate Chinese or Japanese troops in Korea and either sent troops, the other should be notified. In 1894 on the abduction and assassination of a Korean rebel, Chinese and Japanese troops were sent. Reforms in the Korean government were now urged by Japan. China refused to consent to these reforms. Japan gave her ultimatum, following up with the capture of the Korean capital and king. Both empires then prepared for war and in July, 1894, the con

'See Hershey, "Int. Law & Dip. of Rus.-Jap. War, p. 36.

In 1868 Japan, making up from feudalism to the modern type of government determined to reassert her former claims upon Korea. The Koreans insolently refused this vassalage. Japan recognized Korea's independence in 1876 but new ports were opened to Japanese trade in 1880.

'It was Korea's opposition to the "open door" policy which led to the intervention of Japan and China and the stationing of Chinese and Japanese troops in Korea. Another insurrection in Korea in 1894, brought Chinese and Japanese troops face to face again and was followed by the Chino-Jap. War in 1895.

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flict began. Peace was made in March, 1895. China ceded Liaotung Peninsula and Formosa to Japan.

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The terms of peace of the Chino-Japanese War having given Japan the Liaotung Peninsula with an important icefree port, the outcome of the war afforded Russia an opportunity to administer a severe blow to Japan and ingratiate herself with China. This was accomplished by Russia leading in a Russo-French-German "recommendation" to Japan not to take possession of the Liaotung Peninsula. Backed by France and Germany, she intervened with a threat, saying that Japan's possession of the peninsula would be a "perpetual obstacle to the permanent peace of the Far East." 10 Japan, under this pressure, gave up the peninsula to China. She relinquished all her claim November 8, 1895, for a consideration of 30,000,000 taels. This was one of the causes of the Russo-Japanese War-It was another wound to Japanese pride that was to be avenged later at the expense of Russia. It simply hastened the struggle, however, for war, sooner or later, was inevitable.

As Hazen gives it, "The immediate cause was the relations of the two powers to Korea."

The Recommendation is as follows: "The imperial Russian Government having examined the terms of peace demanded by Japan of China, consider the contemplated possession of the Liaotung peninsula by Japan will not only constitute a constant menace to the capital of China, but will also render the independence of Korea illusory, and thus jeopardize the permanent peace of the Far East. Accordingly, the Imperial Government, in a spirit of cordial friendship for Japan, hereby counsel the Government of the Emperor of Japan to renounce the definitive possession of the Liaotung peninsula. Lawrence, p. 11.

10 "The insincerity of the powers in talking about the integrity of China and the peace of the East was not long in manifesting itself. The intervening powers immediately set about reaping their reward. Russia secured the right to run the eastern end of the Trans-Siberian railroad across Manchuria, a province of China, to Vladivostock, and to construct a branch line south from Harbin into the Liaotung peninsula, with a terminus at Talienwan. At the end of a certain time, and under certain conditions this railroad was to pass into the possession of China, but meanwhile Russia was given the right to send her own soldiers into Manchuria to guard it. This was the beginning of Russian control of Manchuria. She poured tens of thousands of troops into that Chinese province and gradually acted as if it were Russian. She also acquired extensive mineral and timber rights in the province. Hazen, "Europe Since 1815," p. 697.

The establishment of the Russo-Chinese bank was another event which offended Japan. The treaty of 1896 between China and Russia opened up all the harbors of China to Russia.

In January, 1898, she got control of the Liaotung Peninsula for twenty-five years through pressure and a threat of war on England if England refused it. In the words of Mr. Rose, "Port Arthur was to become the Gibraltar of the Far East." 11 What did this mean? 12 It meant that the Czar of Russia had compelled China to cede to his already enormous empire the very peninsula whose acquisition by "little Japan," had been pronounced by the European powers to be an unwarrantable disturbance of the balance of power in the East. No greater insult could have been given the Japanese government and people.13 There is no questioning the fact that mis-government in Korea was a real menace to the peace of the East. By the natural course of events it would offer a ready prey to Russia whenever she should choose to lay hands on it.

For a long time in Japan there had been a strong war party in favor of overrunning Korea and repeatedly with difficulty it was kept down.

The Queen of Korea, in 1895, believed that the welfare of her country depended on continued association with China and the preservation of Chinese standards of civilization.

The Japanese became complicated in her murder, October, 1895. The king took refuge in Russian legation at Seol

11

Rose, II, p. 317.

13 "That Russia did not look upon her possession as merely a short lease, but as a permanent one, was unmistakably shown by her conduct. She constructed a railroad south from Harbin, connecting with the Trans-Siberian. She threw thousands of troops into Manchuria; she set about immensely strengthening Port Arthur as a fortress, and a considerable fleet was stationed there. To the Japanese all this seemed to prove that she supposed ultimately to annex the immense province of Manchuria, and later probably Korea, which would give her a large number of ice-free harbors and place her in a dominant position on the Pacific, menacing, the Japanese felt, the very existence of Japan."-Rose. Rose, II, p. 317.

and Japan had a terrible indemnity to pay, for the RussoJapanese war had this murder as a remote cause. Russian influence had taken the place of the Japanese and all that Japan had done in the past was undone. Korea was rapidly becoming a Russian possession when the Russo-Japanese war broke out and Japan thus recovered her control over Korea.1 14

Japan now realized, if never before, the ultimate object of Russia and that war was the only recourse left to the island nation, if she was to be an important factor in Oriental affairs.15

"In 1898 an agreement was signed by Russia and Japan which put Japan on an equal footing with Russia and Korea. But rivalry between the two nations, Russia and Japan, continued and Russia undoubtedly was the aggressor. Russia pressed continually for further leases in the country. This was a source of great anxiety to Japan. Russian soldiers were actually occupying the country, not simply protecting Russian interests. "The unconditional and permanent occupation of Manchuria by Russia would create a state of things prejudicial to the security and interests of Japan. If Russia was established on the flank of Korea it would be a constant menace to the separate existence of that empire. Korea is an important outpost of Japan's line of defense, and Japan considers her independence absolutely essential to her own repose and safety." Hershey, pp. 52-3, quoting from correspondence between Japan and Russia, translated by Asakawa, p. 29.

15 As Lawrence remarks, "It is a matter of life and death for Japan to keep Korea out of the hands of any strong and aggressive state. F. J. Lawrence, "War and Neutrality in the Far East," p. 1.

Russia was disposed to maintain that the question of negotiation between her and China concerning Manchuria and Korea were not of a nature to be submitted to other nations. In fairness to her it must be conceded that there was some ground for Russian position and attitude in the Far East, and for her delay in withdrawing her troops from Manchuria. This, however, does not excuse her for repeated breaches of trust with China and the other powers concerned. The Russian position is perhaps nowhere better stated than by Count Lansdorff (on 27th of January, 1902), Sec. Foreign Relations, 1902, p. 929. He says: "The imperial government of Russia has no intention of dealing a blow to the principle of the 'open door' as she understands it, and Russia has not the least intention, at this moment to modify her political stand on this point. If the Russo-Chinese Bank should obtain concessions in China, the agreement of a private character relative to those concessions would not be different from those concluded at other times by many other foreign corporations. But, would it not be truly strange if the Door which is opened to certain nations were closed to Russia, whose

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